Enabling Hardware Green Internet of Things: A review of Substantial Issues

Between now and the near future, the Internet of Things (IoT) will redesign the socio-ecological morphology of the human terrain. The IoT ecosystem deploys diverse sensor platforms connecting millions of heterogeneous objects through the Internet. Irrespective of sensor functionality, most sensors are low energy consumption devices and are designed to transmit sporadically or continuously. However, when we consider the millions of connected sensors powering various user applications, their energy efficiency (EE) becomes a critical issue. Therefore, the importance of EE in IoT technology, as well as the development of EE solutions for sustainable IoT technology, cannot be overemphasised. Propelled by this need, EE proposals are expected to address the EE issues in the IoT context. Consequently, many developments continue to emerge, and the need to highlight them to provide clear insights to researchers on eco-sustainable and green IoT technologies becomes a crucial task. To pursue a clear vision of green IoT, this study aims to present the current state-of-the art insights into energy saving practices and strategies on green IoT. The major contribution of this study includes reviews and discussions of substantial issues in the enabling of hardware green IoT, such as green machine to machine, green wireless sensor networks, green radio frequency identification, green microcontroller units, integrated circuits and processors. This review will contribute significantly towards the future implementation of green and eco-sustainable IoT

Energy challenges for ICT

The energy consumption from the expanding use of information and communications technology (ICT) is unsustainable with present drivers, and it will impact heavily on the future climate change. However, ICT devices have the potential to contribute signi - cantly to the reduction of CO2 emission and enhance resource e ciency in other sectors, e.g., transportation (through intelligent transportation and advanced driver assistance systems and self-driving vehicles), heating (through smart building control), and manu- facturing (through digital automation based on smart autonomous sensors). To address the energy sustainability of ICT and capture the full potential of ICT in resource e - ciency, a multidisciplinary ICT-energy community needs to be brought together cover- ing devices, microarchitectures, ultra large-scale integration (ULSI), high-performance computing (HPC), energy harvesting, energy storage, system design, embedded sys- tems, e cient electronics, static analysis, and computation. In this chapter, we introduce challenges and opportunities in this emerging eld and a common framework to strive towards energy-sustainable ICT

From serendipity to sustainable Green IoT: technical, industrial and political perspective

Recently, Internet of Things (IoT) has become one of the largest electronics market for hardware production due to its fast evolving application space. However, one of the key challenges for IoT hardware is the energy efficiency as most of IoT devices/objects are expected to run on batteries for months/years without a battery replacement or on harvested energy sources. Widespread use of IoT has also led to a largescale rise in the carbon footprint. In this regard, academia, industry and policy-makers are constantly working towards new energy-efficient hardware and software solutions paving the way for an emerging area referred to as green-IoT. With the direct integration and the evolution of smart communication between physical world and computer-based systems, IoT devices are also expected to reduce the total amount of energy consumption for the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector. However, in order to increase its chance of success and to help at reducing the overall energy consumption and carbon emissions a comprehensive investigation into how to achieve green-IoT is required. In this context, this paper surveys the green perspective of the IoT paradigm and aims to contribute at establishing a global approach for green-IoT environments. A comprehensive approach is presented that focuses not only on the specific solutions but also on the interaction among them, and highlights the precautions/decisions the policy makers need to take. On one side, the ongoing European projects and standardization efforts as well as industry and academia based solutions are presented and on the other side, the challenges, open issues, lessons learned and the role of policymakers towards green-IoT are discussed. The survey shows that due to many existing open issues (e.g., technical considerations, lack of standardization, security and privacy, governance and legislation, etc.) that still need to be addressed, a realistic implementation of a sustainable green-IoT environment that could be universally accepted and deployed, is still missing

Swarm intelligence techniques for optimization and management tasks insensor networks

The main contributions of this thesis are located in the domain of wireless sensor netorks. More in detail, we introduce energyaware algorithms and protocols in the context of the following topics: self-synchronized duty-cycling in networks with energy harvesting capabilities, distributed graph coloring and minimum energy broadcasting with realistic antennas. In the following, we review the research conducted in each case. We propose a self-synchronized duty-cycling mechanism for sensor networks. This mechanism is based on the working and resting phases of natural ant colonies, which show self-synchronized activity phases. The main goal of duty-cycling methods is to save energy by efficiently alternating between different states. In the case at hand, we considered two different states: the sleep state, where communications are not possible and energy consumption is low; and the active state, where communication result in a higher energy consumption. In order to test the model, we conducted an extensive experimentation with synchronous simulations on mobile networks and static networks, and also considering asynchronous networks. Later, we extended this work by assuming a broader point of view and including a comprehensive study of the parameters. In addition, thanks to a collaboration with the Technical University of Braunschweig, we were able to test our algorithm in the real sensor network simulator Shawn (http://shawn.sf.net). The second part of this thesis is devoted to the desynchronization of wireless sensor nodes and its application to the distributed graph coloring problem. In particular, our research is inspired by the calling behavior of Japanese tree frogs, whose males use their calls to attract females. Interestingly, as female frogs are only able to correctly localize the male frogs when their calls are not too close in time, groups of males that are located nearby each other desynchronize their calls. Based on a model of this behavior from the literature, we propose a novel algorithm with applications to the field of sensor networks. More in detail, we analyzed the ability of the algorithm to desynchronize neighboring nodes. Furthermore, we considered extensions of the original model, hereby improving its desynchronization capabilities.To illustrate the potential benefits of desynchronized networks, we then focused on distributed graph coloring. Later, we analyzed the algorithm more extensively and show its performance on a larger set of benchmark instances. The classical minimum energy broadcast (MEB) problem in wireless ad hoc networks, which is well-studied in the scientific literature, considers an antenna model that allows the adjustment of the transmission power to any desired real value from zero up to the maximum transmission power level. However, when specifically considering sensor networks, a look at the currently available hardware shows that this antenna model is not very realistic. In this work we re-formulate the MEB problem for an antenna model that is realistic for sensor networks. In this antenna model transmission power levels are chosen from a finite set of possible ones. A further contribution concerns the adaptation of an ant colony optimization algorithm --currently being the state of the art for the classical MEB problem-- to the more realistic problem version, the so-called minimum energy broadcast problem with realistic antennas (MEBRA). The obtained results show that the advantage of ant colony optimization over classical heuristics even grows when the number of possible transmission power levels decreases. Finally we build a distributed version of the algorithm, which also compares quite favorably against centralized heuristics from the literature.Las principles contribuciones de esta tesis se encuentran en el domino de las redes de sensores inalámbricas. Más en detalle, introducimos algoritmos y protocolos que intentan minimizar el consumo energético para los siguientes problemas: gestión autosincronizada de encendido y apagado de sensores con capacidad para obtener energía del ambiente, coloreado de grafos distribuido y broadcasting de consumo mínimo en entornos con antenas reales. En primer lugar, proponemos un sistema capaz de autosincronizar los ciclos de encendido y apagado de los nodos de una red de sensores. El mecanismo está basado en las fases de trabajo y reposo de las colonias de hormigas tal y como estas pueden observarse en la naturaleza, es decir, con fases de actividad autosincronizadas. El principal objectivo de este tipo de técnicas es ahorrar energía gracias a alternar estados de forma eficiente. En este caso en concreto, consideramos dos estados diferentes: el estado dormido, en el que los nodos no pueden comunicarse y el consumo energético es bajo; y el estado activo, en el que las comunicaciones propician un consumo energético elevado. Con el objetivo de probar el modelo, se ha llevado a cabo una extensa experimentación que incluye tanto simulaciones síncronas en redes móviles y estáticas, como simulaciones en redes asíncronas. Además, este trabajo se extendió asumiendo un punto de vista más amplio e incluyendo un detallado estudio de los parámetros del algoritmo. Finalmente, gracias a la colaboración con la Technical University of Braunschweig, tuvimos la oportunidad de probar el mecanismo en el simulador realista de redes de sensores, Shawn (http://shawn.sf.net). La segunda parte de esta tesis está dedicada a la desincronización de nodos en redes de sensores y a su aplicación al problema del coloreado de grafos de forma distribuida. En particular, nuestra investigación está inspirada por el canto de las ranas de árbol japonesas, cuyos machos utilizan su canto para atraer a las hembras. Resulta interesante que debido a que las hembras solo son capaces de localizar las ranas macho cuando sus cantos no están demasiado cerca en el tiempo, los grupos de machos que se hallan en una misma región desincronizan sus cantos. Basado en un modelo de este comportamiento que se encuentra en la literatura, proponemos un nuevo algoritmo con aplicaciones al campo de las redes de sensores. Más en detalle, analizamos la habilidad del algoritmo para desincronizar nodos vecinos. Además, consideramos extensiones del modelo original, mejorando su capacidad de desincronización. Para ilustrar los potenciales beneficios de las redes desincronizadas, nos centramos en el problema del coloreado de grafos distribuido que tiene relación con diferentes tareas habituales en redes de sensores. El clásico problema del broadcasting de consumo mínimo en redes ad hoc ha sido bien estudiado en la literatura. El problema considera un modelo de antena que permite transmitir a cualquier potencia elegida (hasta un máximo establecido por el dispositivo). Sin embargo, cuando se trabaja de forma específica con redes de sensores, un vistazo al hardware actualmente disponible muestra que este modelo de antena no es demasiado realista. En este trabajo reformulamos el problema para el modelo de antena más habitual en redes de sensores. En este modelo, los niveles de potencia de transmisión se eligen de un conjunto finito de posibilidades. La siguiente contribución consiste en en la adaptación de un algoritmo de optimización por colonias de hormigas a la versión más realista del problema, también conocida como broadcasting de consumo mínimo con antenas realistas. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que la ventaja de este método sobre heurísticas clásicas incluso crece cuando el número de posibles potencias de transmisión decrece. Además, se ha presentado una versión distribuida del algoritmo, que también se compara de forma bastante favorable contra las heurísticas centralizadas conocidas

RF Energy Harvesting Wireless Communication: RF Environment, Device Hardware and Practical Issues

Radio frequency (RF) based wireless power transfer provides an attractive solution to extend the lifetime of power-constrained wireless sensor networks. Through harvesting RF energy from surrounding environments or dedicated energy sources, low-power wireless devices can be self-sustaining and environment-friendly. These features make the RF energy harvesting wireless communication (RF-EHWC) technique attractive to a wide range of applications. The objective of this article is to investigate the latest research activities on the practical RF-EHWC design. The distribution of RF energy in the real environment, the hardware design of RF-EHWC devices and the practical issues in the implementation of RF-EHWC networks are discussed. At the end of this article, we introduce several interesting applications that exploit the RF-EHWC technology to provide smart healthcare services for animals, wirelessly charge the wearable devices, and implement 5G-assisted RF-EHWC

Context-awareness for mobile sensing: a survey and future directions

The evolution of smartphones together with increasing computational power have empowered developers to create innovative context-aware applications for recognizing user related social and cognitive activities in any situation and at any location. The existence and awareness of the context provides the capability of being conscious of physical environments or situations around mobile device users. This allows network services to respond proactively and intelligently based on such awareness. The key idea behind context-aware applications is to encourage users to collect, analyze and share local sensory knowledge in the purpose for a large scale community use by creating a smart network. The desired network is capable of making autonomous logical decisions to actuate environmental objects, and also assist individuals. However, many open challenges remain, which are mostly arisen due to the middleware services provided in mobile devices have limited resources in terms of power, memory and bandwidth. Thus, it becomes critically important to study how the drawbacks can be elaborated and resolved, and at the same time better understand the opportunities for the research community to contribute to the context-awareness. To this end, this paper surveys the literature over the period of 1991-2014 from the emerging concepts to applications of context-awareness in mobile platforms by providing up-to-date research and future research directions. Moreover, it points out the challenges faced in this regard and enlighten them by proposing possible solutions

Energy-Sustainable IoT Connectivity: Vision, Technological Enablers, Challenges, and Future Directions

Technology solutions must effectively balance economic growth, social equity, and environmental integrity to achieve a sustainable society. Notably, although the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm constitutes a key sustainability enabler, critical issues such as the increasing maintenance operations, energy consumption, and manufacturing/disposal of IoT devices have long-term negative economic, societal, and environmental impacts and must be efficiently addressed. This calls for self-sustainable IoT ecosystems requiring minimal external resources and intervention, effectively utilizing renewable energy sources, and recycling materials whenever possible, thus encompassing energy sustainability. In this work, we focus on energy-sustainable IoT during the operation phase, although our discussions sometimes extend to other sustainability aspects and IoT lifecycle phases. Specifically, we provide a fresh look at energy-sustainable IoT and identify energy provision, transfer, and energy efficiency as the three main energy-related processes whose harmonious coexistence pushes toward realizing self-sustainable IoT systems. Their main related technologies, recent advances, challenges, and research directions are also discussed. Moreover, we overview relevant performance metrics to assess the energy-sustainability potential of a certain technique, technology, device, or network and list some target values for the next generation of wireless systems. Overall, this paper offers insights that are valuable for advancing sustainability goals for present and future generations.Comment: 25 figures, 12 tables, submitted to IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Societ

Urubu: energy scavenging in wireless sensor networks

For the past years wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been coined as one of the most promising technologies for supporting a wide range of applications. However, outside the research community, few are the people who know what they are and what they can offer. Even fewer are the ones that have seen these networks used in real world applications. The main obstacle for the proliferation of these networks is energy, or the lack of it. Even though renewable energy sources are always present in the networks environment, designing devices that can efficiently scavenge that energy in order to sustain the operation of these networks is still an open challenge. Energy scavenging, along with energy efficiency and energy conservation, are the current available means to sustain the operation of these networks, and can all be framed within the broader concept of “Energetic Sustainability”. A comprehensive study of the several issues related to the energetic sustainability of WSNs is presented in this thesis, with a special focus in today’s applicable energy harvesting techniques and devices, and in the energy consumption of commercially available WSN hardware platforms. This work allows the understanding of the different energy concepts involving WSNs and the evaluation of the presented energy harvesting techniques for sustaining wireless sensor nodes. This survey is supported by a novel experimental analysis of the energy consumption of the most widespread commercially available WSN hardware platforms.Há já alguns anos que as redes de sensores sem fios (do Inglês Wireless Sensor Networks - WSNs) têm sido apontadas como uma das mais promissoras tecnologias de suporte a uma vasta gama de aplicações. No entanto, fora da comunidade científica, poucas são as pessoas que sabem o que elas são e o que têm para oferecer. Ainda menos são aquelas que já viram a sua utilização em aplicações do dia-a-dia. O principal obstáculo para a proliferação destas redes é a energia, ou a falta dela. Apesar da existência de fontes de energia renováveis no local de operação destas redes, continua a ser um desafio construir dispositivos capazes de aproveitar eficientemente essa energia para suportar a operação permanente das mesmas. A colheita de energia juntamente com a eficiência energética e a conservação de energia, são os meios disponíveis actualmente que permitem a operação permanente destas redes e podem ser todos englobados no conceito mais amplo de “Sustentabilidade Energética”. Esta tese apresenta um estudo extensivo das várias questões relacionadas com a sustentabilidade energética das redes de sensores sem fios, com especial foco nas tecnologias e dispositivos explorados actualmente na colheita de energia e no consumo energético de algumas plataformas comercias de redes de sensores sem fios. Este trabalho permite compreender os diferentes conceitos energéticos relacionados com as redes de sensores sem fios e avaliar a capacidade das tecnologias apresentadas em suportar a operação permanente das redes sem fios. Este estudo é suportado por uma inovadora análise experimental do consumo energético de algumas das mais difundidas plataformas comerciais de redes de sensores sem fios

Ag-IoT for crop and environment monitoring: Past, present, and future

CONTEXT: Automated monitoring of the soil-plant-atmospheric continuum at a high spatiotemporal resolution is a key to transform the labor-intensive, experience-based decision making to an automatic, data-driven approach in agricultural production. Growers could make better management decisions by leveraging the real-time field data while researchers could utilize these data to answer key scientific questions. Traditionally, data collection in agricultural fields, which largely relies on human labor, can only generate limited numbers of data points with low resolution and accuracy. During the last two decades, crop monitoring has drastically evolved with the advancement of modern sensing technologies. Most importantly, the introduction of IoT (Internet of Things) into crop, soil, and microclimate sensing has transformed crop monitoring into a quantitative and data-driven work from a qualitative and experience-based task. OBJECTIVE: Ag-IoT systems enable a data pipeline for modern agriculture that includes data collection, transmission, storage, visualization, analysis, and decision-making. This review serves as a technical guide for Ag-IoT system design and development for crop, soil, and microclimate monitoring. METHODS: It highlighted Ag-IoT platforms presented in 115 academic publications between 2011 and 2021 worldwide. These publications were analyzed based on the types of sensors and actuators used, main control boards, types of farming, crops observed, communication technologies and protocols, power supplies, and energy storage used in Ag-IoT platforms