The Use and Misuse of Science: Refining the Theoretical Framework of Science Policy

This poster examines the use and misuse of science information in the federal government. Scientific information is a vital component of policy making in the U.S. today. Stine notes that science research is ???intricately linked to societal needs and the nation???s economy in areas such as transportation, communication, agriculture, education, environment, health, defense, and jobs??? [7, p. i]. In the past, the relationship between science and policy was seen as a linear process: science conducted research, collected data, and presented its findings to federal agencies, which then use that evidence to determine the best policy action [2, 5]. However, the reality of science policy is far more complex; while science is a valuable source of information, it is also problematic, since scientific data may conflict with political, moral, and economic values [5, 6, 7]. For example, if endangered fish reside in a lake, politicians may face choices between preserving the ecosystem, irrigating nearby farms, and allowing recreational use of the lake. Each choice has economic, environmental, and political ramifications. Doremus explains that ???esthetic, ecological, educational, historical, recreational, or scientific??? values can all be considered relevant foundations for agency decisions [3, p. 1136]. Because of this complexity, ???the political community and the scientific community??? collaborate at the boundary of politics and science over the integrity and productivity of research??? [5, p. 143]. In this conceptualization, ???government cannot make good policy decisions unless the decision makers have access to, and appropriately use, the best available understanding of the facts??? [4, p. 1639]. Federal agencies, like individuals, have information behaviors???they create, access, review, share, evaluate, and act upon information in order to formulate and assess public policy. Agencies could accept scientific conclusions and use them as the basis of policy formation. Agencies could accept the science, yet determine that it is not the best or sole basis of effective policy. Of course, agencies could reject or partially reject the science, thus creating more opportunities to basis policy on other considerations. Typical agency behavior with respect to science falls across a spectrum, with science being neither unreservedly endorsed nor discarded. While ???a scientist views science as a way of learning, a policy maker???may see science as the justification for a decision, a requirement of the law, a tool or impediment, or something that opposes or supports their viewpoint??? [1, p. 1005]. Furthermore, agency information behavior with respect to science does not exist in isolation. There is recurring interaction between science and policy. For instance, scientists who study the toxic effects of chemicals and report their conclusions to the Environmental Protection Agency, to guide agency behavior, will likely continue studying the same chemicals and providing additional information to further influence policy. How the EPA behaves with respect to the scientific information may shape future research, communication efforts, or the information behaviors of the scientists themselves. Principal-agent theory is frequently used to explain how science and policy interact. Under this approach, federal agencies, as principals, contract with science to provide needed information. Science then acts as an agent, supplying data and conclusions in exchange for funding, prestige, and other rewards [5, 6]. Principal-agent theory captures a significant portion of the interaction between science and policy, but does not reflect the entire relationship. Specifically, principal-agent theory has little to say about how agencies use science???the information behaviors in which they engage???or how these information behaviors affect subsequent interaction with scientists. The theory currently does not address the problem of under-utilized or under-appreciated agents. If the agents perceive their work is not incorporated into policy, perhaps they will refuse to do further work, will begin doing shoddy work, or will attempt to subtly integrate policy advice into their work. Since these information behaviors are, in fact, a crucial part of formulating policy, they ought not be overlooked. The nature of the recurring interactions, and how they are affected by agencies??? information behavior, has not been explicitly examined in the previous literature. This poster illuminates these aspects of the relationships between science and policy. Specific examples of agencies using and misusing scientific information will be drawn from the literature to illustrate the complex interactions. The full, cyclical relationship between science and policy will be portrayed, demonstrating how agencies??? information behaviors may affect subsequent research and communication behaviors. This will necessarily entail a refinement of principal-agent theory as it has been applied to science policy. This research will be a valuable contribution in several ways. It brings science policy???how scientific information is used or misused???to the explicit attention of iSchools and their cognate fields of study. As we create technological tools and engage in policy-relevant research, we need to pay attention to how our data and conclusions may or may not be utilized. In addition, science policy can benefit from the theoretical and conceptual rigor of the trans-disciplinary research of the iSchools. Finally, the research will also test and strengthen the use of principal-agent theory as it applies to science policy. Overall, this theory has great utility, but can be refined to address more of the interaction between science and policy

Earth science information: Planning for the integration and use of global change information

The Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) was founded in 1989 as a non-profit corporation dedicated to facilitating access to, use and understanding of global change information worldwide. The Consortium was created to cooperate and coordinate with organizations and researchers throughout the global change community to further access the most advanced technology, the latest scientific research, and the best information available for critical environmental decision making. CIESIN study efforts are guided by Congressional mandates to 'convene key present and potential users to assess the need for investment in integration of earth science information,' to 'outline the desirable pattern of interaction with the scientific and policy community,' and to 'develop recommendations and draft plans to achieve the appropriate level of effort in the use of earth science data for research and public policy purposes.' In addition, CIESIN is tasked by NASA to develop a data center that would extend the benefits of Earth Observing System (EOS) to the users of global change information related to human dimensions issues. For FY 1991, CIESIN focused on two main objectives. The first addressed the identification of information needs of global change research and non-research user groups worldwide. The second focused on an evaluation of the most efficient mechanisms for making this information available in usable forms

Reframing the evidence base for policy-relevance to increase impact : a case study on forest fragmentation in the oil palm sector

1. It is necessary to improve knowledge exchange between scientists and decision‐makers so that scientific evidence can be readily accessed to inform policy. 2. To maximise impact of scientific evidence in policy development, the scientific community should engage more fully with decision‐makers, building long‐term working relationships in order to identify and respond to ‘policy windows’ with science that is reframed for policy‐relevance. 3. We illustrate the process and challenges using a case study in which we synthesised evidence from studies of habitat fragmentation to provide information for improved biodiversity conservation in the oil palm sector, resulting in the uptake of this research into new industry guidelines. 4. Policy implications. The case study demonstrates how having an in‐depth understanding of the ‘policy arena’ (the state of policy and the actors and influencing factors that affect policy) and responding with relevant and specific information, enabled effective uptake of science to inform the design of conservation set‐asides in the oil palm industry.</p

Does providing scientific information affect climate change and GMO policy preferences of the mass public? Insights from survey experiments in Germany and the United States

The use of information provision has been criticized as an ineffective way to increase support for evidence-based environmental policies, but it remains a dominant strategy among policy communicators. Using a survey experiment on climate change and genetically modified food (GMO) policy preferences in Germany and the United States (N = 3,000 total), we investigate how information provision shapes environmental policy attitudes and whether this effect is moderated by trust in science and trust in the source of messages. Findings show that information provision significantly shifted policy preferences towards the prevailing scientific opinion, but primarily among individuals whose prior attitudes conflicted with the scientific message. While trust in GMO science moderated message effectiveness in the U.S., generally the effects did not depend on levels of trust in science or trust in the message source. Results are similar for both countries, suggesting that the findings could be relevant to different political contexts

From knowledge to wealth : transforming Russian science and technology for a modern knowledge economy

Russia possesses a sophisticated science and technology (S&T) infrastructure (research capability, technically trained workforce, and technical research universities) which, even today, is a world leader in many fields. Despite this world class basic research capacity, Russia's exports are primarily raw materials. At a time when wealth depends to an increasing degree on knowledge, Russia does not have an effective system for converting its scientific capacity into wealth. Russia's S&T resources are isolated bureaucratically (they are deployed in the rigid hierarchical system devised in the 1920s to mobilize resources for rapid state-planned industrial development and national defense), functionally (there are few links between the supply of S&T output by research institutes and the demand for S&T by Russian or foreign enterprises), and geographically (many assets are located in formerly closed cities or isolated science/atomic cities). Overcoming these inefficiencies and adjusting the S&T system to the demands of a market economy will require a major program of institutional and sectoral reform. Part I of this paper describes the ambiguous legacy of the Soviet S&T system and the status of the Russian S&T sector after 10 years of transition. Part II describes the evolution of the Russian system of intellectual property rights protection from Soviet times to the present and argues that Russia will never develop a successful commercialization program until it clarifies the ownership of the large stock of intellectual property funded with federal budget resources. Part III outlines a comprehensive 10-point sectoral reform program to improve the efficiency of government research and development spending and link the Russian S&T system with market forces.ICT Policy and Strategies,Public Health Promotion,Scientific Research&Science Parks,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,General Technology,ICT Policy and Strategies,Scientific Research&Science Parks,Science Education,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,General Technology

The role of science in policy making

This thesis aims to consider the role played by science in policy making. Firstly, two decision models are considered, synoptic rationality which depends heavily on formal information and comprehensive planning, and disjointed incrementalism, under which decisions are made in a fragmented and remedial manner via the interaction of interested partisans and with little necessity for formal information. Secondly, different descriptions of scientific activity are discussed and a broadly Kuhnian view of science is supported, with what is regarded as a `fact' being heavily influenced by social factors. It is suggested that scientific controversies are more likely to occur in policy related science but for reasons that are intrinsic to science rather than due to some correctable aberration. A number of case studies, including two `in-depth' studies into maternal deprivation and the relationship between hyperactivity and food additives, support this contention and also show that whilst scientific findings can raise issues they cannot aid in the resolution of these as the synoptic model suggests that they should. Instead information supports and legitimates value based policy views, with actual policy decisions arrived at via negotiation and aiming at a balancing of partisan pressures, as suggested by the incremental model. Not only does information not aid the resolution of policy disputes, it cannot do so. When policy is disputed, scientific findings are also likely to be disputed and further research merely attracts more highly destructive criticism. This is termed the over critical model. When policy is decided then there is reduced impetus to critically test scientific ideas; this is termed the under critical model. Both of these situations act to the detriment of science. The main conclusion drawn is that the belief that science is essential to decision making is misleading and may serve to mask rather than illuminate areas of dispute

Greenhouse Effect in the Classroom: A Project- and Laboratory-Based Curriculum

This article describes a multifaceted curriculum for use in earth science classes from secondary school to undergraduate level. The centerpiece of the curriculum is a project-based investigation of greenhouse warming that can be conducted during one or more lab sessions using off-the-shelf materials. This process provides students with the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the climate system, the nature of scientific uncertainty, the burden of proof in ongoing research, and the difficulties of transferring scientific results to the public-policy realm. The main thrust of the lab demonstration and the curriculum itself is to help students distinguish the solid science in these issues from the array of questionable information they encounter in the press, on the internet, or in conversation. Educational levels: Primary elementary, Middle school, High school, Undergraduate lower division

Can diaries help improve agricultural production statistics ? Evidence from Uganda

Although good and timely information on agricultural production is critical for policy-decisions, the quality of underlying data is often low and improving data quality could have a high payoff. This paper uses data from a production diary, administered concurrently with a standard household survey in Uganda to analyze the nature and incidence of responses, the magnitude of differences in reported outcomes, and factors that systematically affect these. Despite limited central supervision, diaries elicited a strong response, complemented standard surveys in a number of respects, and were less affected by problems of respondent fatigue than expected. The diary-based estimates of output value consistently exceeded that from the recall-based production survey, in line with reported disposition. Implications for policy and practical administration of surveys are drawn out.Rural Development Knowledge&Information Systems,Crops&Crop Management Systems,Food&Beverage Industry,Scientific Research&Science Parks,Science Education

A collaboratively derived international research agenda on legislative science advice

© 2019, The Author(s). The quantity and complexity of scientific and technological information provided to policymakers have been on the rise for decades. Yet little is known about how to provide science advice to legislatures, even though scientific information is widely acknowledged as valuable for decision-making in many policy domains. We asked academics, science advisers, and policymakers from both developed and developing nations to identify, review and refine, and then rank the most pressing research questions on legislative science advice (LSA). Experts generally agree that the state of evidence is poor, especially regarding developing and lower-middle income countries. Many fundamental questions about science advice processes remain unanswered and are of great interest: whether legislative use of scientific evidence improves the implementation and outcome of social programs and policies; under what conditions legislators and staff seek out scientific information or use what is presented to them; and how different communication channels affect informational trust and use. Environment and health are the highest priority policy domains for the field. The context-specific nature of many of the submitted questions—whether to policy issues, institutions, or locations—suggests one of the significant challenges is aggregating generalizable evidence on LSA practices. Understanding these research needs represents a first step in advancing a global agenda for LSA research