Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

Une exploration des perspectives d’étudiants-athlètes sur la préparation psychologique pour reprendre le sport après avoir subi une commotion cérébrale

Les athlètes qui reprennent le sport après avoir subi une commotion cérébrale sont considérés comme « prêts » lorsqu'ils ont complété un processus de six étapes qui augmente l'effort physique et cognitif. Cependant, ce processus néglige largement les facteurs psychosociaux impliqués dans le retour au sport après une commotion cérébrale. Cette étude qualitative a utilisé une méthodologie narrative et une position philosophique constructiviste pour explorer les perceptions de 12 (n = 6 femmes) étudiants-athlètes universitaires canadiens ayant subi une commotion dans la préparation psychologique pour reprendre le sport. Les participants étaient âgés de 18 à 25 ans au moment de leur commotion et ont été absents du sport pendant au moins un mois. Chaque athlète a participé à deux entrevues via Zoom (entrevue 1 : M = 103 min ; entrevue 2 : M = 88 min). Les données ont été analysées en utilisant la non-fiction créative. Six thèmes narratifs ont été interprétés à partir des données : confiance, peur, identité, soutien, pression et cas par cas. Deux récits composites ont été écrits pour illustrer les thèmes narratifs impliqués dans la préparation psychologique. L'histoire de Pierre-Olivier dépeint ses pensées, ses émotions et les interactions en tant que joueur de hockey universitaire masculin de deuxième année qui était prêt à retourner au sport et qui a connu des résultats positifs. L'histoire de Pierre-Olivier se concentre sur les jours précédant son retour au sport après avoir reçu l’autorisation médicale. L'histoire d'Andrea présente le portrait d'une capitaine d'une équipe féminine de rugby qui n'était pas prête à son retour et qui a connu des résultats négatifs. L'histoire d'Andrea est un retour sur son autorisation médicale lorsqu'elle parle avec son médecin, et ses interactions avec une ancienne co-équipière qui cherchent ses avis. Cette étude est l'une des premières à examiner la préparation psychologique des athlètes ayant subi une commotion cérébrale. Ces résultats indiquent la nécessité d'une évaluation plus globale des athlètes ayant subi une commotion cérébrale afin d'aider à déterminer qui est (et qui n'est pas) prêt à reprendre le sport après une commotion cérébrale.Athletes returning to sport following a concussion are deemed ‘ready’ once they have completed a six-step process that increases in physical and cognitive exertion. However, this process largely overlooks psychosocial factors involved in returning to sport following a concussion. This qualitative study used a narrative methodology underpinned by a constructivist philosophical position to understand 12 (n = 6 females) formerly concussed Canadian university student-athletes’ perceptions of the factors they believed were involved in feeling psychologically ready to return to sport. Participants were aged 18 to 25 years during their concussion and experienced a minimum of one-month absence from sports. Each athlete participated in two Zoom interviews (interview 1: M = 103 min; interview 2: M = 88 min). The data was analyzed using creative non-fiction. Six themes were interpreted from the data: confidence, fear, identity, pressure, support, and case-by-case. Two composite narratives were written to depict the themes involved in psychological readiness. Pierre-Olivier’s story portrays the thoughts, emotions, and interactions of a second-year university men’s ice hockey player who was ready to return to sport and experienced successful outcomes. Pierre-Olivier’s story focuses on his growing readiness leading up to his first game following his medical clearance. Andrea’s story portrays a women’s rugby captain who was not ready to return to sport and experienced an unsuccessful return to sport. Andrea’s story depicts a flashback to a conversation with her doctor during her medical clearance and her interactions with a former teammate seeking advice. This study is among the first to examine psychological readiness among concussed athletes. These results indicate a need for a more holistic assessment of concussed athletes to help identify who is (and who is not) ready to return to sport following a concussion

A phenomenological study of problematic internet use with massively multiplayer online games

Massively multiplayer online games (MMOG’s) are a specific form of online computer games that allow for millions of people to simultaneously play online at any time. This form of online gaming has become a huge phenomenon worldwide both as a popular past time and a business endeavour for many individuals. There are more than 16 million people worldwide who subscribe to fantasy role-playing online games. Although such games can provide entertainment for many people, they can also lead to problematic Internet use (PIU). PIU has also been referred to as Internet addiction, and can cause significant problems in an individual’s functioning. The study aimed to enhance a greater understanding of the phenomenon of male adults’ experiences PIU with MMOG’s. More specifically the study aims to identify if PIU with MMOG’s can be considered a form of Internet addiction within South Africa. Furthermore, assisting in the further development of online addiction diagnosis and treatment strategies. The study utilised an interpretive phenomenological approach (IPA) and participants were purposively sampled. The data was collected using semi-structured individual interviews. Furthermore, Braun and Clarks thematic analysis was used during data analysis while incorporating the four major processes in phenomenological research, namely 1) epoche, 2) phenomenological reduction, 3) imaginative variation and, 4) synthesis. Themes that emerged from the analysis of the participants’ experiences included, initial description of use, motives for continued use of MMOG’s, consequences of PIU with MMOG’s, perceptions of PIU with MMOG’s, and treatment considerations. This study provided a thick description of South African and international literature and combines the literature with the themes that emerged from the participants experiences in order to produce discussions based on the findings of this qualitative study. Conclusions, recommendations, and limitations of this study informed future research on cyber citizenship by providing a detailed understanding of the context of South African male adults’ experiences of PIU with MMOG’s

Player–video game interaction: A systematic review of current concepts

International audienceVideo game design requires a user-centered approach to ensure that the experience enjoyed by players is as good as possible. However, the nature of player-video game interactions has not as yet been clearly defined in the scientific literature. The purpose of the present study was to provide a systematic review of empirical evidences of the current concepts of player-video game interactions in entertainment situations. A total of 72 articles published in scientific journals that deal with human-computer interaction met the criteria for inclusion in the present review. Major findings of these articles were presented in a narrative synthesis. Results showed that player-video game interactions could be defined with multiple concepts that are closely linked and intertwined. These concepts concern player aspects of player-video game interactions, namely engagement and enjoyment, and video game aspects, namely information input/output techniques, game contents and multiplayer games. Global approaches, such as playability, also exist to qualify player-video game interactions. Limitations of these findings are discussed to help researchers to plan future advances of the field and provide supplementary effort to better know the role of less-studied aspects. Practical implications are also discussed to help game designers to optimize the design of player-video game interactions

A Successful Talent Development Environment in an Amateur Soccer Club: Redefining „Success“ for the Greater Population

This dissertation is one added piece to the puzzle in how environmental factors can contribute to a positive affect to and development within a sport by looking at how environmental models can be used in an amateur format for the first time. The purpose of this thesis to adapt both the ATDE and ESF working models to an amateur environment in soccer, and if necessary, perform an intervention which might improve the positive effect the environment could have on its athletes.  Results showed many of the features and factors found within elite ATDEs could be replicated at an amateur soccer club. Moreover, an intervention based upon previous ecological studies involved connecting the academy and senior-level players through multiple channels. Results showed positive experiences from both sides of the intervention, as youth players began to understand how they could still play at the adult level - balancing an education or job with their sport. In summary, the results demonstrate three key concepts: 1) both ATDE and ESF models can be adapted an applied by practitioners and researchers to the amateur environment, 2) a successful  ecological interventional can be as simple as providing the room and space for interaction between senior and junior-level athletes, and 3) future research into ATDEs and ESF of amateur environments could help many young female athletes stay active into their adult years.:Statement of Authentication 3 Dissertation-Related Publications and Presentations 4 Table of Contents 5 English summary of the dissertation 7 Deutsche Zusammenfassung der Dissertation 8 Chapter 1: Introduction 10 1.1 The role of amateur sport 10 1.2 Soccer as a world sport 11 Chapter 2: Talent Detection, Identification, and Development 14 2.1 Traditional model of talent development 15 2.2 Talent detection and Identification 17 2.3 Criticisms of talent identification 20 2.4 Talent development models 23 2.5 Summary of talent identification and developmental models 27 Chapter 3: Ecological Approach and Models of Development 28 3.1 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecologocal Model 29 3.1 A call for the ecological approach 31 3.2 Henriksen’s ecological studies 32 3.3. Ecological intervention and a successful ATDE in soccer 47 3.4. Other ATDE Studies 52 3.5 Summary and future directions 53 Chapter 4: Purpose of Dissertation 55 4.1 Dissertation objectives 55 Chapter 5: Study I - A description of the ATDE and ESF 57 5.1 General methodology 57 5.2 Study I - Selection of the club and participants 59 5.3 Study I - Research methods and instruments 60 5.4 Study I - Procedure 63 5.5 Study I - Results 66 5.6 Study I - Description of the environment 68 5.7 Study I - Factors influencing the success of the environment 76 5.8 Study I - Discussion 82 Chapter 6: Study II - An ecological intervention 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Study II - Description of the Intervention 102 6.3 Study II - Research methods and instruments 104 6.4 Study II - Analysis and interpretation 105 6.5 Study II - Results 105 6.6 Study II - Discussion 108 Chapter 7: Reflections and applications for practitioners 115 Literature Cited 124 Appendices 137 Appendix 1: Interview guidelines for players, staff, and coaches in study I 137 Appendix 2: Interview guidelines for parents in study I 138 Appendix 3: Interview guidelines for Players and coaches in study II 139 Appendix 4: Node trees developed from analysis of interviews and observations 14

Elements of a theory of social competence : socio-cognitive and behavioral contributions in typical development

L’être humain évolue quotidiennement au cœur d’un monde social hautement complexe auquel il est singulièrement adapté d’un point de vue évolutif. L’individu qui navigue de façon adéquate, parmi les situations et les interactions sociales, y parvient grâce à une machinerie cognitive sophistiquée et spécialisée connue sous le terme de « cognition sociale », composée d’un ensemble de fonctions acquises durant le développement et permettant la perception, le traitement, l’interprétation et la réaction à des stimuli sociaux dynamiques et nuancés. Le développement social serait sous-tendu par le fonctionnement cognitif global (p. ex. le fonctionnement intellectuel, le langage, la mémoire, l’attention, les habiletés visuoperceptuelles), ainsi que par des habiletés sociocognitives spécifiques (p. ex. la théorie de l’esprit, l’empathie, la reconnaissance des émotions faciales, la prise de perspective, l’attribution d’intentions, le raisonnement moral), le tout assuré par un ensemble de structures et réseaux neuronaux connu sous le terme « cerveau social ». Malgré les connaissances empiriques suggérant une association entre les facteurs neuronaux, cognitifs et environnementaux du développement social, notre compréhension des interactions dynamiques et complexes entre les habiletés sociocognitives, l’influence externe de facteurs environnementaux, ainsi que leurs impacts individuels et combinés sur le développement social typique demeure préliminaire. L’objectif général de cette thèse était d’étudier deux corrélats principaux qui sous-tendent la compétence sociale durant le développement, soient la cognition sociale et le comportement social. Le modèle SOCIAL (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010) est utilisé comme cadre théorique et empirique pour explorer de multiples facettes du développement de la compétence sociale et des liens entre les habiletés sociocognitives (p.ex. le raisonnement moral et la prise de perspective) et le comportement social global. La première étude explore la contribution des aspects cognitifs (théorie de l’esprit) et affectifs (empathie) de la prise de perspective au raisonnement moral et au comportement social des enfants et des adolescents neurotypiques. Un outil novateur d’évaluation du raisonnement moral, le Socio-Moral Reasoning Aptitude Level (So-Moral), fut utilisé pour rehausser la valeur écologique du construit. Ainsi, des dilemmes sociomoraux quotidiens ont été présentés aux participants, qui ont également complété des mesures de théorie de l’esprit, d’empathie, et de comportement social. Les résultats suggèrent que les aspects cognitifs (théorie de l’esprit) et affectifs (empathie) de la prise de perspective contribuent conjointement à prédire la maturité morale chez les enfants, mais pas chez les adolescents. Par ailleurs, certaines lacunes au plan du raisonnement moral seraient associées à des instances plus fréquentes de comportements externalisés, mais aucun lien entre la maturité morale et les comportements prosociaux n’a été détecté. La théorie de l’esprit contribuerait de manière significative à la maturité du raisonnement moral chez les enfants, suggérant l’importance d’une évaluation cognitive d’une situation sociomorale. Comme les facteurs prédictifs du raisonnement moral différeraient chez les enfants et les adolescents, il est possible que des mécanismes sous-jacents distincts soient impliqués. La deuxième étude documente l’association entre les facteurs externes, tels qu’opérationnalisés par le temps hebdomadaire passé à jouer à des jeux vidéo, et le comportement social. Cette étude vise également à comprendre les liens entre l’usage des jeux vidéo, la cognition sociale et l’adaptation sociale chez des enfants du primaire. L’étude révèle que les enfants qui passent moins de temps à jouer à des jeux vidéo par semaine tendent à exhiber plus de comportements prosociaux. Toutefois, aucun lien n’a été identifié entre la fréquence d’usage de jeux vidéo et les comportements mésadaptés. Il est donc possible que les interactions sociales complexes, réelles et face-à-face soient particulièrement importantes au développement des compétences sociales chez les enfants. De façon globale, les données de la thèse contribuent à établir un portrait plus complet des relations complexes et dynamiques entre la cognition sociale, les expériences sociales et le comportement social lors du développement typique. Les résultats offrent des pistes novatrices quant à l’approfondissement des connaissances théoriques, empiriques et cliniques au sujet du développement social, et fournissent des fondements empiriques pour soutenir l’élaboration de programmes d’intervention et d’outils d’évaluation de la cognition et de la compétence sociale.Humans are characterized by species-specific social skills and interactions, which direct much of their behaviors, dictate thought processes and form the foundations of human consciousness and reality. These social abilities are highly complex and intricate, involving a large range of developmentally acquired skills allowing the perception, processing, interpretation and response to dynamic social stimuli. The fine-tuning of these diverse abilities across the lifespan contributes to an individual’s social competence, allowing the navigation of the social world. Smooth and adaptive social development is supported by core cognitive functions (e.g. intellectual ability, language, memory, attention, visual-perceptive skills), as well as by specific skills (e.g. theory of mind, empathy, emotion recognition, perspective taking, intent attribution, moral reasoning) referred to under the umbrella of “social cognition” and subsumed by neural structures and networks of the “social brain”. Despite strong evidence supporting the associations between neural, cognitive and social functioning, much remains to be learned about the interplay between socio-cognitive abilities during development, the external influence of environmental factors, as well as their individual and additive impact on social behavior. The main objective of this dissertation was to study two manifestations of social competence in typical development, namely, social cognition and social behavior. The SOCIAL model (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010) is used as the theoretical and empirical framework providing fertile ground for the investigation of multiple facets of the development of social competence and a better understanding of the global interplay of socio-cognitive skills (e.g., moral reasoning and perspective taking) and social behavior more broadly. The first study explores the contribution of cognitive (theory of mind) and affective (empathy) aspects of perspective taking to moral reasoning and social behavior in typically developing children and adolescents. An innovative neuropsychological tool for assessing moral reasoning, the Socio-Moral Reasoning Aptitude Level (So-Moral), was used to enhance the ecological value of the construct. Everyday socio-moral reasoning dilemmas were presented to children and adolescents to evaluate their moral maturity, and assessments of theory of mind, empathy and social behavior were also completed. Jointly, both aspects of perspective taking (theory of mind and empathy) predicted moral reasoning maturity in children, but not in adolescents. Poorer moral reasoning skills were associated with more externalizing behavior problems across the age span, but no associations were found with respect to prosocial behavior. Theory of mind skills were independent predictors of moral reasoning, suggesting that a cognitive understanding of the situation may be especially useful when children are asked to reason about a moral conflict. Contributing factors to moral reasoning differed in children and adolescents, suggesting differential underlying mechanisms. The second study investigates the contribution of external influences, as operationalized by time spent playing video games, to social behavior. A secondary objective was to add to the growing body of literature exploring associations between video game playing, social cognition and social behavior, in an age group less frequently focused on (elementary school-aged children). The main results of the study indicate that children who spend less time per week playing video games have greater prosocial tendencies, but no association was found with behavior problems. Findings highlight the possibility that real-life, complex, and nuanced social interactions outside screen-based play may be central to fostering social competence skills in children. Overall, the results of the studies presented in this dissertation contribute to building a more comprehensive picture of the complex interplay between social cognition, social experience and social competence during typical development. Findings offer new avenues for improving theoretical, empirical and clinical knowledge of social development and provide an empirical basis for the development of social skills intervention programs as well as social cognition assessment tools

The Basic Needs in Games (BANG) Model of Video Games and Mental Health: Untangling the Positive and Negative Effects of Games with Better Science

How do video games affect mental health? Despite decades of research and widespread interest from policymakers, parents, and players, in most cases the best answer we have is: it depends. I argue that our limited success stems largely from (1) a lack of theories that explain more than small portions of the varied evidence base, and (2) methodological limitations related to measurement, self-report data, questionable research practices, and more. In this thesis, I present the Basic Needs in Games (BANG) model. Building upon self-determination theory, BANG offers a novel theoretical account that provides mechanisms for both short- and long-term effects, positive and negative, resulting from quality or quantity of gaming. Under BANG, the primary mechanism through which games impact mental health is via need satisfaction and frustration: the extent to which both games, and players’ life in general, provide experiences of control and volition (autonomy), mastery and growth (competence), and connection and belonging (relatedness). To generate BANG, I conducted semi-structured interviews, finding that need-frustrating experiences within games have important effects on player behavior, likelihood of continuing play, and expectations for future experiences (Study 1). In a mixed-method survey, I show that some—but not all—players are successful in compensating for frustrated needs in daily life by playing games (Study 2). These findings informed the validation of the the Basic Needs in Games Scale (BANGS), as previous instruments either did not measure need frustration or were not designed for gaming contexts. Across 1400 participants and various validity analyses, I show that the questionnaire is suitable for wide-ranging use (Study 3). Finally, I collected 12 weeks of digital trace data using a novel method of monitoring the Xbox network, and combined this with 6 biweekly surveys measuring need satisfaction and frustration alongside three mental health constructs (Study 4). Across 2000 responses (n = 400), I find partial support for BANG: there is strong evidence to rule out a meaningful relationship between playtime and subsequent mental health. However, players who felt more need satisfaction than usual in games also reported higher than usual need satisfaction in general, which in turn related to better mental health. My results help push the field beyond simplified notions of playtime by offering a framework that can systematically account for a wide variety of observed gaming effects. I hope that this work can serve as both a call to action and an illustrative example of how games research can be more productive

Understanding the Congruence Between Player and Character Beliefs in Digital Games

Game researchers and designers both know that a key element of making a game enjoyable is for the player to identify with the game's protagonist. A large majority of research focuses on studying how the physical appearance of the protagonist influences player identification. We propose that elements of the character's personality are equally, if not more, important when creating bonds between player and protagonist. When approaching protagonist design, there is a trade-off between character depth and identification. In order to have more engaging and deep protagonists, certain subsets of players will not identify with the protagonist due to conflicting beliefs and values. On the other hand, game designers can make characters shallow and generic to avoid isolating players, but this leads to a less interesting narrative experience. One solution to this problem is to tailor the beliefs and values exhibited by the protagonist to align with those of each individual player. In order to achieve this, however, the game needs to have a way of knowing the real-world beliefs of the player. This can be accomplished through validated questionnaires, but this is not ideal for players who are playing a game for enjoyment. In this work we address the problem that we don't have validated methods of measuring real-world beliefs of the player through game mechanics and make the following main contributions: 1. Understand how a congruence (and incongruence) of beliefs between the player and protagonist relates to identification and enjoyment 2. Create and test the effectiveness of using text-based narrative prototypes to evaluate narrative elements of games 3. Develop and evaluate a method of using a player's in-game dialogue choices to construct a behaviour model of the player 4. Demonstrate that in-game dialogue choices can be used to accurately measure the player's real-world belief

Technology and Testing

From early answer sheets filled in with number 2 pencils, to tests administered by mainframe computers, to assessments wholly constructed by computers, it is clear that technology is changing the field of educational and psychological measurement. The numerous and rapid advances have immediate impact on test creators, assessment professionals, and those who implement and analyze assessments. This comprehensive new volume brings together leading experts on the issues posed by technological applications in testing, with chapters on game-based assessment, testing with simulations, video assessment, computerized test development, large-scale test delivery, model choice, validity, and error issues. Including an overview of existing literature and ground-breaking research, each chapter considers the technological, practical, and ethical considerations of this rapidly-changing area. Ideal for researchers and professionals in testing and assessment, Technology and Testing provides a critical and in-depth look at one of the most pressing topics in educational testing today

The Effect of Canines on Athletes in an Athletic Training Room with an Emphasis on Hegemonic Masculinity

The purpose of this study was to examine if the presence of a canine in an athletic training room impacts the psychosocial environment, and hegemonic masculine athletes’ help-seeking behaviors. More specifically, this study examined the effect that canines had on rehabilitation processes in the athletic training room at one NCAA Division II university in the Northeast United States, known to use a comfort dog in the athletic training room. It was hypothesized that the canine would enhance the psychosocial atmosphere, and that the presence of a canine would be associated with positive health seeking behaviors in hegemonic male athletes. Following IRB approval, Qualtrics-based questionnaires were sent electronically to 452 athletes identified by the university’s athletic training staff as having used the athletic training services over the past year. Ninety-five athletes responded. The athletes were presented with an online survey that consisted of a demographics questionnaire, three questionnaires examining the overall effectiveness of a dog being present in the athletic training room, and if the participant identified as male, a fourth questionnaire that rated their hegemonic masculinity levels (CMNI-46). Lastly, a fifth questionnaire was sent specifically to the athletic trainers to gain insight from their perspectives about how the canine influenced the environment. Dog Treatment Questionnaires 1 and 2 were for athletes who had received athletic training treatments while in the athletic training room with the dog, and Dog Treatment Questionnaire 3 was for athletes who had received athletic training room treatments with no dog present. Chi-squared analyses found fifteen of the sixteen questions in the first dog treatment questionnaire, and twelve of the fifteen questions in the second dog treatment iv questionnaire to be significant at the p ≤ 0.05 level, meaning that significantly more participants found the experience with the dog to be favorable versus neutral or unfavorable. A chi-squared analysis also found Dog Treatment Questionnaire 3 to be significant at the p ≤ 0.05 level for seven of the thirteen questions, meaning that significantly more participants believed that specific aspects of the athletic training room environment would be better if a dog was present. A correlation analysis was also run showed a high positive relationship with the scores on the Dog Treatment Questionnaire 1 and Dog Treatment Questionnaire 2 at the p ≤ 0.01 level (r = 0.823). Overall, it was found that the canine did enhance the psychosocial atmosphere. Analyses showed that the dog significantly improved athletes’ experiences in regards to anxiety, confidence, and adherence to rehabilitation. These findings are limited by response rate, cross-sectional design, potential selection bias, and the lack of validation in the questionnaires. Secondly, it was hypothesized that the hegemonic masculinity levels would affect a male athlete’s perception of canine-assisted therapy, and this hypothesis was not supported. Analyses showed that there was no relationship between the scores on the Dog Treatment Questionnaires with any of the subscales on the CMNI-46. These findings are limited by the response rate, range restriction, and attrition rates. In conclusion, it was found that athletes reported that the dog’s presence decreased anxiety, increased confidence, and increased adherence within rehabilitation; the benefits of a dog’s presence can be predicted; and, the dog had no specific effect on the hegemonic male athletes undergoing rehabilitation. Recommendations for future research are presented