10 research outputs found

    Un modÚle pour les algorithmes avec retour sur trace dans les tuteurs par traçage de modÚles

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    La prĂ©sente thĂšse dĂ©crit des travaux de recherches effectuĂ©s sur des systĂšmes tutoriels intelligents (STI) et plus prĂ©cisĂ©ment sur les tuteurs par traçage de modĂšle (MTT). Les travaux de recherche prĂ©sentĂ©s ici s’intĂ©ressent Ă  la conception de MTT pour des domaines dans lesquels les Ă©tudiants peuvent rĂ©soudre la tĂąche qui leur est assignĂ©e de plusieurs façons. Ces domaines comportent parfois des algorithmes avec retour sur trace lorsque l’étudiant ne sait pas forcĂ©ment quelles sont les alternatives qui feront progresser correctement l’état de la tĂąche.Cette thĂšse prĂ©sente dans un premier temps un systĂšme de reprĂ©sentation de connaissances pour les algorithmes avec retour sur trace qui rend les connaissances de cet algorithme exploitables par des agents logiciels. Elle prĂ©sente dans un second temps un ensemble de processus qui exploitent ces connaissances dans le cadre de MTT pour assurer automatiquement le suivi de l’étudiant et ainsi que la production d’interventions pĂ©dagogiques. En premier, ces interventions consistent Ă  fournir Ă  l'Ă©tudiant de l’aide pour la prochaine Ă©tape qui explique quelles sont les possibilitĂ©s dont dispose l'Ă©tudiant et comment dĂ©terminer laquelle est la meilleure. En deuxiĂšme, elles fournissent Ă  l'Ă©tudiant des rĂ©troactions stratĂ©giques qui lui confirment que son action est valide tout en l’informant de l’existence d’une meilleure alternative le cas Ă©chĂ©ant. Enfin, elles fournissent Ă  l'Ă©tudiant des rĂ©troactions nĂ©gatives qui lui apprennent dans quelles situations les actions invalides qu’il vient d’effectuer s’appliquent.Une expĂ©rimentation a Ă©tĂ© rĂ©alisĂ©e avec des Ă©tudiants de biologie de l’UniversitĂ© de Sherbrooke pour Ă©valuer les effets de ces interventions sur les choix des Ă©tudiants au cours de la rĂ©solution de la tĂąche. Les rĂ©sultats de cette expĂ©rience montrent que les Ă©tudiants bĂ©nĂ©ficiant de ces interventions effectuent plus souvent des choix optimaux, et dĂ©montrent ainsi une plus grande maĂźtrise du domaine

    A data-assisted approach to supporting instructional interventions in technology enhanced learning environments

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    The design of intelligent learning environments requires significant up-front resources and expertise. These environments generally maintain complex and comprehensive knowledge bases describing pedagogical approaches, learner traits, and content models. This has limited the influence of these technologies in higher education, which instead largely uses learning content management systems in order to deliver non-classroom instruction to learners. This dissertation puts forth a data-assisted approach to embedding intelligence within learning environments. In this approach, instructional experts are provided with summaries of the activities of learners who interact with technology enhanced learning tools. These experts, which may include instructors, instructional designers, educational technologists, and others, use this data to gain insight into the activities of their learners. These insights lead experts to form instructional interventions which can be used to enhance the learning experience. The novel aspect of this approach is that the actions of the intelligent learning environment are now not just those of the learners and software constructs, but also those of the educational experts who may be supporting the learning process. The kinds of insights and interventions that come from application of the data-assisted approach vary with the domain being taught, the epistemology and pedagogical techniques being employed, and the particulars of the cohort being instructed. In this dissertation, three investigations using the data-assisted approach are described. The first of these demonstrates the effects of making available to instructors novel sociogram-based visualizations of online asynchronous discourse. By making instructors aware of the discussion habits of both themselves and learners, the instructors are better able to measure the effect of their teaching practice. This enables them to change their activities in response to the social networks that form between their learners, allowing them to react to deficiencies in the learning environment. Through these visualizations it is demonstrated that instructors can effectively change their pedagogy based on seeing data of their students’ interactions. The second investigation described in this dissertation is the application of unsupervised machine learning to the viewing habits of learners using lecture capture facilities. By clustering learners into groups based on behaviour and correlating groups with academic outcome, a model of positive learning activity can be described. This is particularly useful for instructional designers who are evaluating the role of learning technologies in programs as it contextualizes how technologies enable success in learners. Through this investigation it is demonstrated that the viewership data of learners can be used to assist designers in building higher level models of learning that can be used for evaluating the use of specific tools in blended learning situations. Finally, the results of applying supervised machine learning to the indexing of lecture video is described. Usage data collected from software is increasingly being used by software engineers to make technologies that are more customizable and adaptable. In this dissertation, it is demonstrated that supervised machine learning can provide human-like indexing of lecture videos that is more accurate than current techniques. Further, these indices can be customized for groups of learners, increasing the level of personalization in the learning environment. This investigation demonstrates that the data-assisted approach can also be used by application developers who are building software features for personalization into intelligent learning environments. Through this work, it is shown that a data-assisted approach to supporting instructional interventions in technology enhanced learning environments is both possible and can positively impact the teaching and learning process. By making available to instructional experts the online activities of learners, experts can better understand and react to patterns of use that develop, making for a more effective and personalized learning environment. This approach differs from traditional methods of building intelligent learning environments, which apply learning theories a priori to instructional design, and do not leverage the in situ data collected about learners

    Assistance Ă  la construction et Ă  la comparaison de techniques de diagnostic des connaissances

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    Comparing and building knowledge diagnostic is a challenge in the field of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) systems. Knowledge diagnostic aims to infer the knowledge mastered or not by a student in a given learning domain (like mathematics for high school) using student traces recorded by the TEL system. Knowledge diagnostics are widely used, but they strongly depend on the learning domain and are not well formalized. Thus, there exists no method or tool to build, compare and evaluate different diagnostics applied on a given learning domain. Similarly, using a diagnostic in two different domain usually imply to implementing almost both from scratch. Yet, comparing and reusing knowledge diagnostics can lead to reduce the engineering cost, to reinforce the evaluation and finally help knowledge diagnostic designers to choose a diagnostic. We propose a method, refine in a first platform, to assist knowledge diagnostic designers to build and compare knowledge diagnostics, using a new formalization of the diagnostic and student traces. To help building diagnostics, we used a semi-automatic machine learning algorithm, guided by an ontology of the traces and the knowledge designed by the designer. To help comparing diagnostics, we use a set of comparison criteria (either statistical or specific to the field of TEL systems) applied on the results of each diagnostic on a given set of traces. The main contribution is that our method is generic over diagnostics, meaning that very different diagnostics can be built and compared, unlike previous work on this topic. We evaluated our work though three experiments. The first one was about applying our method on three different domains and set of traces (namely geometry, reading and surgery) to build and compare five different knowledge diagnostics in cross validation. The second experiment was about designing and implementing a new comparison criteria specific to TEL systems: the impact of knowledge diagnostic on a pedagogical decision, the choice of a type of help to give to a student. The last experiment was about designing and adding in our platform a new diagnostic, in collaboration with an expert in didactic.Cette thĂšse aborde la thĂ©matique de la comparaison et de la construction de diagnostics des connaissances dans les Environnements Informatiques pour l'Apprentissage Humain (EIAH). Ces diagnostics sont utilisĂ©s pour dĂ©terminer si les apprenants maĂźtrisent ou non les connaissances ou conceptions du domaine d'apprentissage (par exemple math au collĂšge) Ă  partir des traces collectĂ©es par l'EIAH. Bien que ces diagnostics soient rĂ©currents dans les EIAH, ils sont fortement liĂ©s au domaine et ne sont que peu formalisĂ©s, si bien qu'il n'existe pas de mĂ©thode de comparaison pour les positionner entre eux et les valider. Pour la mĂȘme raison, utiliser un diagnostic dans deux domaines diffĂ©rents implique souvent de le redĂ©velopper en partie ou en totalitĂ©, sans rĂ©elle rĂ©utilisation. Pourtant, pouvoir comparer et rĂ©utiliser des diagnostics apporterait aux concepteurs d'EIAH plus de rigueur pour le choix, l'Ă©valuation et le dĂ©veloppement de ces diagnostics. Nous proposons une mĂ©thode d'assistance Ă  la construction et Ă  la comparaison de diagnostics des connaissances, rĂ©ifiĂ©e dans une premiĂšre plateforme, en se basant sur une formalisation du diagnostic des connaissances en EIAH que nous avons dĂ©fini et sur l'utilisation de traces d'apprenant. L'assistance Ă  la construction se fait via un algorithme d'apprentissage semi-automatique, guidĂ© par le concepteur du diagnostic grĂące Ă  une ontologie dĂ©crivant les traces et les connaissances du domaine d'apprentissage. L'assistance Ă  la comparaison se fait par application d'un ensemble de critĂšres de comparaison (statistiques ou spĂ©cifiques aux EIAH) sur les rĂ©sultats des diffĂ©rents diagnostics construits. La principale contribution au domaine est la gĂ©nĂ©ricitĂ© de notre mĂ©thode, applicable Ă  un ensemble de diagnostics diffĂ©rents pour tout domaine d'apprentissage. Nous Ă©valuons notre travail Ă  travers trois expĂ©rimentations. La premiĂšre porte sur l'application de la mĂ©thode Ă  trois domaines diffĂ©rents (gĂ©omĂ©trie, lecture, chirurgie) en utilisant des jeux de traces en validation croisĂ©e pour construire et appliquer les critĂšres de comparaison sur cinq diagnostics diffĂ©rents. La seconde expĂ©rimentation porte sur la spĂ©cification et l'implĂ©mentation d'un nouveau critĂšre de comparaison spĂ©cifique aux EIAH : la comparaison des diagnostics en fonction de leur impact sur une prise de dĂ©cision de l'EIAH, le choix d'un type d'aide Ă  donner Ă  l'apprenant. La troisiĂšme expĂ©rimentation traite de la spĂ©cification et de l'ajout d'un nouveau diagnostic dans notre plateforme, en collaborant avec une didacticienne

    Intelligent tutoring in virtual reality for highly dynamic pedestrian safety training

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    This thesis presents the design, implementation, and evaluation of an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) with a Virtual Reality (VR) interface for child pedestrian safety training. This system enables children to train practical skills in a safe and realistic virtual environment without the time and space dependencies of traditional roadside training. This system also employs Domain and Student Modelling techniques to analyze user data during training automatically and to provide appropriate instructions and feedback. Thus, the traditional requirement of constant monitoring from teaching personnel is greatly reduced. Compared to previous work, especially the second aspect is a principal novelty for this domain. To achieve this, a novel Domain and Student Modeling method was developed in addition to a modular and extensible virtual environment for the target domain. While the Domain and Student Modeling framework is designed to handle the highly dynamic nature of training in traffic and the ill-defined characteristics of pedestrian tasks, the modular virtual environment supports different interaction methods and a simple and efficient way to create and adapt exercises. The thesis is complemented by two user studies with elementary school children. These studies testify great overall user acceptance and the system’s potential for improving key pedestrian skills through autonomous learning. Last but not least, the thesis presents experiments with different forms of VR input and provides directions for future work.Diese Arbeit behandelt den Entwurf, die Implementierung sowie die Evaluierung eines intelligenten Tutorensystems (ITS) mit einer Virtual Reality (VR) basierten BenutzeroberflĂ€che zum Zwecke von Verkehrssicherheitstraining fĂŒr Kinder. Dieses System ermöglicht es Kindern praktische FĂ€higkeiten in einer sicheren und realistischen Umgebung zu trainieren, ohne den örtlichen und zeitlichen AbhĂ€ngigkeiten des traditionellen, straßenseitigen Trainings unterworfen zu sein. Dieses System macht außerdem von Domain und Student Modelling Techniken gebrauch, um Nutzerdaten wĂ€hrend des Trainings zu analysieren und daraufhin automatisiert geeignete Instruktionen und RĂŒckmeldung zu generieren. Dadurch kann die bisher erforderliche, stĂ€ndige Überwachung durch Lehrpersonal drastisch reduziert werden. Verglichen mit bisherigen Lösungen ist insbesondere der zweite Aspekt eine grundlegende Neuheit fĂŒr diesen Bereich. Um dies zu erreichen wurde ein neuartiges Framework fĂŒr Domain und Student Modelling entwickelt, sowie eine modulare und erweiterbare virtuelle Umgebung fĂŒr diese Art von Training. WĂ€hrend das Domain und Student Modelling Framework so entworfen wurde, um mit der hohen Dynamik des Straßenverkehrs sowie den vage definierten FußgĂ€ngeraufgaben zurecht zu kommen, unterstĂŒtzt die modulare Umgebung unterschiedliche Eingabeformen sowie eine unkomplizierte und effiziente Methode, um Übungen zu erstellen und anzupassen. Die Arbeit beinhaltet außerdem zwei Nutzerstudien mit Grundschulkindern. Diese Studien belegen dem System eine hohe Benutzerakzeptanz und stellt das Potenzial des Systems heraus, wichtige FĂ€higkeiten fĂŒr FußgĂ€ngersicherheit durch autodidaktisches Training zu verbessern. Nicht zuletzt beschreibt die Arbeit Experimente mit verschiedenen Formen von VR Eingaben und zeigt die Richtung fĂŒr zukĂŒnftige Arbeit auf

    Astus, une plateforme pour créer et étudier les systÚmes tutoriels intelligents « par traçage de modÚle »

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    Cette thĂšse s’intĂ©resse aux systĂšmes tutoriels intelligents (STI), un type d’environnement informatique pour l’apprentissage humain (EIAH) qui se distingue des autres (p. ex. les exerciseurs et les hypermĂ©dias Ă©ducatifs) en offrant un mĂ©canisme d’évaluation plus sophistiquĂ©. Parmi les diffĂ©rentes familles de STI, ce sont les STI « par traçage de modĂšle » (MTT) qui ont le plus fait leurs preuves. Les MTT sont critiquĂ©s, premiĂšrement parce qu’ils Ă©valuent l’apprenant de façon serrĂ©e (c.-Ă -d. qui positionne l’action de l’apprenant par rapport Ă  une ou plusieurs mĂ©thodes pour effectuer la tĂąche), ce qui n’est possible que pour des tĂąches bien dĂ©finies. Par consĂ©quent, on leur reproche d’encourager un apprentissage superficiel. DeuxiĂšmement, parce que les efforts de crĂ©ation qu’ils requiĂšrent sont jugĂ©s prohibitifs, ce qui a menĂ© Ă  l’apparition d’autres familles de STI, comme les STI « par contraintes » et les STI « par traçage d’exemples » et ceux basĂ©s sur l’apprentissage automatique. Par cette thĂšse, nous voulons contribuer Ă  renouveler l’intĂ©rĂȘt pour les MTT en amĂ©liorant le rapport entre les efforts de crĂ©ation et l’efficacitĂ© potentielle des interventions, et en Ă©tablissant plus clairement leur rĂŽle pĂ©dagogique. Pour ce faire, nous proposons la plateforme Astus qui permet d’explorer l’espace qui existe entre les MTT crĂ©Ă©s avec les plateformes existantes, et des MTT dĂ©diĂ©s ayant recours Ă  des connaissances didactiques sophistiquĂ©es (p. ex. des dialogues) qui exigent des efforts de crĂ©ation encore plus importants. La plateforme Astus se distingue des plateformes existantes parce qu’elle gĂ©nĂšre des interventions plutĂŽt que de recourir Ă  des interventions prĂ©mĂąchĂ©es et qu’elle supporte les tĂąches s’effectuant dans des environnements qui ont une dimension physique. La gĂ©nĂ©ration des interventions dĂ©pend : d’un modĂšle de la tĂąche qui s’inscrit dans le paradigme du tuteur, c’est-Ă -dire qui reprĂ©sente une abstraction et une gĂ©nĂ©ralisation des instructions d’un tuteur humain; d’un modĂšle de l’UI qui permet des interventions riches comme une dĂ©monstration (c.-Ă -d. dĂ©placements du pointeur et simulation des clics et des saisies); de langages dĂ©diĂ©s et d’outils qui rĂ©duisent les efforts de crĂ©ation des auteurs; de mĂ©canismes d’extension qui permettent d’adapter la gĂ©nĂ©ration en fonction d’une stratĂ©gie pĂ©dagogique particuliĂšre. Le paradigme du tuteur, parce qu’il favorise une communication transparente entre le systĂšme et l’apprenant, met en Ă©vidence les avantages et les dĂ©savantages de l’approche pĂ©dagogique des MTT, essentiellement une Ă©valuation prĂ©cise (c.-Ă -d. qui permet de produire des indices sur la prochaine Ă©tape et des rĂ©troactions sur les erreurs), mais serrĂ©e. En s’inscrivant explicitement le paradigme du tuteur, entre autres en Ă©vitant de tirer profit de la nature de domaines particuliers ou de propriĂ©tĂ©s de tĂąches particuliĂšres pour assouplir l’évaluation, la plateforme Astus se dĂ©marque plus nettement des autres familles de STI que les autres MTT. Par consĂ©quent, elle Ă©tablit plus clairement le rĂŽle pĂ©dagogique des MTT. Cinq expĂ©rimentations (menĂ©es par Luc Paquette) Ă  petite Ă©chelle ont Ă©tĂ© rĂ©alisĂ©es auprĂšs d’étudiants au baccalaurĂ©at au dĂ©partement d’informatique (un laboratoire pour la manipulation d’arbres binaires de recherche et un pour la conversion de nombres en virgule flottante). Ces expĂ©rimentations indiquent que les interventions gĂ©nĂ©rĂ©es sont efficaces. Au-delĂ  de ces rĂ©sultats, c’est le processus entourant ces expĂ©rimentations, parce qu’il est comparable au processus des chercheurs potentiellement intĂ©ressĂ©s par la plateforme Astus, qui montre que la version prĂ©sentĂ©e dans cette thĂšse est plus qu’un prototype et qu’elle peut ĂȘtre utilisĂ©e Ă  l’interne dans un contexte rĂ©el

    Augmented Conversation and Cognitive Apprenticeship Metamodel Based Intelligent Learning Activity Builder System

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    This research focused on a formal (theory based) approach to designing Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) authoring tool involving two specific conventional pedagogical theories—Conversation Theory (CT) and Cognitive Apprenticeship (CA). The research conceptualised an Augmented Conversation and Cognitive Apprenticeship Metamodel (ACCAM) based on apriori theoretical knowledge and assumptions of its underlying theories. ACCAM was implemented in an Intelligent Learning Activity Builder System (ILABS)—an ITS authoring tool. ACCAM’s implementation aims to facilitate formally designed tutoring systems, hence, ILABS―the practical implementation of ACCAM― constructs metamodels for Intelligent Learning Activity Tools (ILATs) in a numerical problem-solving context (focusing on the construction of procedural knowledge in applied numerical disciplines). Also, an Intelligent Learning Activity Management System (ILAMS), although not the focus of this research, was developed as a launchpad for ILATs constructed and to administer learning activities. Hence, ACCAM and ILABS constitute the conceptual and practical contributions that respectively flow from this research. ACCAM’s implementation was tested through the evaluation of ILABS and ILATs within an applied numerical domain―the accounting domain. The evaluation focused on the key constructs of ACCAM―cognitive visibility and conversation, implemented through a tutoring strategy employing Process Monitoring (PM). PM augments conversation within a cognitive apprenticeship framework; it aims to improve the visibility of the cognitive process of a learner and infers intelligence in tutoring systems. PM was implemented via an interface that attempts to bring learner’s thought process to the surface. This approach contrasted with previous studies that adopted standard Artificial Intelligence (AI) based inference techniques. The interface-based PM extends the existing CT and CA work. The strategy (i.e. interface-based PM) makes available a new tutoring approach that aimed fine-grain (or step-wise) feedbacks, unlike the goal-oriented feedbacks of model-tracing. The impact of PM—as a preventive strategy (or intervention) and to aid diagnosis of learners’ cognitive process—was investigated in relation to other constructs from the literature (such as detection of misconception, feedback generation and perceived learning effectiveness). Thus, the conceptualisation and implementation of PM via an interface also contributes to knowledge and practice. The evaluation of the ACCAM-based design approach and investigation of the above mentioned constructs were undertaken through users’ reaction/perception to ILABS and ILAT. This involved, principally, quantitative approach. However, a qualitative approach was also utilised to gain deeper insight. Findings from the evaluation supports the formal (theory based) design approach—the design of ILABS through interaction with ACCAM. Empirical data revealed the presence of conversation and cognitive visibility constructs in ILATs, which were determined through its behaviour during the learning process. This research identified some other theoretical elements (e.g. motivation, reflection, remediation, evaluation, etc.) that possibly play out in a learning process. This clarifies key conceptual variables that should be considered when constructing tutoring systems for applied numerical disciplines (e.g. accounting, engineering). Also, the research revealed that PM enhances the detection of a learner’s misconception and feedback generation. Nevertheless, qualitative data revealed that frequent feedbacks due to the implementation of PM could be obstructive to thought process at advance stage of learning. Thus, PM implementations should also include delayed diagnosis, especially for advance learners who prefer to have it on request. Despite that, current implementation allows users to turn PM off, thereby using alternative learning route. Overall, the research revealed that the implementation of interface-based PM (i.e. conversation and cognitive visibility) improved the visibility of learner’s cognitive process, and this in turn enhanced learning—as perceived

    A critique of Kodaganallur, Weitz and Rosenthal "A comparison of model-tracing and constraint-based intelligent tutoring paradigms"

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    In the following, we group the flaws in the authors' paper into three sections. We first address KWR's misconceptions regarding the constraint representation that is the core of the CBM approach and the suboptimal implementation decisions these misconceptions caused. In the following two sections, we discuss their conclusions with respect to the range of application and remediation. We then critique how they conducted their comparison. We end with some reflections on how this sort of comparison ought to be conducted

    Un modÚle hybride pour le support à l'apprentissage dans les domaines procéduraux et mal définis

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    Pour construire des systĂšmes tutoriels intelligents capables d'offrir une assistance hautement personnalisĂ©e, une solution populaire est de reprĂ©senter les processus cognitifs pertinents des apprenants Ă  l'aide d'un modĂšle cognitif. Toutefois, ces systĂšmes tuteurs dits cognitifs ne sont applicables que pour des domaines simples et bien dĂ©finis, et ne couvrent pas les aspects liĂ©s Ă  la cognition spatiale. De plus, l'acquisition des connaissances pour ces systĂšmes est une tĂąche ardue et coĂ»teuse en temps. Pour rĂ©pondre Ă  cette problĂ©matique, cette thĂšse propose un modĂšle hybride qui combine la modĂ©lisation cognitive avec une approche novatrice basĂ©e sur la fouille de donnĂ©es pour extraire automatiquement des connaissances du domaine Ă  partir de traces de rĂ©solution de problĂšme enregistrĂ©es lors de l'usagĂ© du systĂšme. L'approche par la fouille de donnĂ©es n'offre pas la finesse de la modĂ©lisation cognitive, mais elle permet d'extraire des espaces problĂšmes partiels pour des domaines mal dĂ©finis oĂč la modĂ©lisation cognitive n'est pas applicable. Un modĂšle hybride permet de profiter des avantages de la modĂ©lisation cognitive et de ceux de l'approche fouille de donnĂ©es. Des algorithmes sont prĂ©sentĂ©s pour exploiter les connaissances et le modĂšle a Ă©tĂ© appliquĂ© dans un domaine mal dĂ©fini : l'apprentissage de la manipulation du bras robotisĂ© Canadarm2. \ud ______________________________________________________________________________ \ud MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : SystĂšmes tutoriels intelligents, cognition spatiale, robotique, fouille de donnĂ©e

    A Critique of Kodaganallur, Weitz and Rosenthal, "A Comparison of Model-Tracing and Constraint-Based Intelligent Tutoring Paradigms"

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    Research on intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) has produced many systems, but only a handful of design principles. From its start in the late 1970s, researchers have recognized that design principles should ideally be derived from psychological insights into the cognitive processes underlying the acquisition of cognitive skills, but attempts to base design philosophies on psychological principles are still few and far between (Ohlsson, 1991). Two such philosophies have come to be associated with the labels model-tracing (MT), which is based on the ACT-R theory of human cognition (Anderson, 2005; Anderson & Lebiere, 1998), and constraint-based modelling (CBM), which has grown out of our own work on learning (Ohlsson, 1993; 1996a; 1996b; Ohlsson & Rees, 1991). Given two design philosophies, it is useful to conduct systematic comparisons to ascertain the importance and implications of their differences. In a recent IJAIED article, Kodaganallur, Weitz and Rosenthal (2005), henceforth referred to as KWR, undertake a comparison between MT and CBM. They built two tutoring systems for the same domain, one based on MT and one on CBM, and they report their observations and reflections with respect to a catalogue of issues. For every issue but one they find some weakness or potential problem with the CBM approach and also some reason for believing that any corresponding or related proble

    Undergraduate Catalogue 2005-2007

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    https://scholarship.shu.edu/undergraduate_catalogues/1005/thumbnail.jp
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