Análise de redes da paisagem submarina de canhão : implicações para o planeamento e gestão da biodiversidade

Submarine canyons are complex and heterogeneous geomorphologic structures highly relevant for the biodiversity and productivity of continental margins. These marine ecosystems play a key role providing invaluable goods and services for human well-being but are also increasingly subjected to the effects of anthropogenic pressure and climate change. The natural isolation of canyons may act synergistically with these changes with implications for population connectivity and the maintenance of biodiversity. The understanding of the causes and ecological consequences of such changes requires holistic and interdisciplinary approaches. I mapped the landscape of submarine canyon research based on a comprehensive bibliographic data set and using data mining techniques and network analysis. The existing knowledge clusters, historical trends, emergent topics and knowledge gaps in canyon research were identified and characterized. Topics such as “Geology & Geophysics”, “Oceanographic Processes” and “Biology & Ecology” were among the most studied while, for instance, “Biogeochemistry” and ecological modelling were among the less explored. Topics regarding anthropogenic impacts and climate-driven processes were only detected on publication of the last decade. The knowledge network reflects a latent interdisciplinarity in canyon research that developed mostly in the new millennium, supported by a well implemented and international collaboration network. The research efforts have been mainly directed towards only a few canyon systems and a thematic bias was identified, with specific topics addressed preferentially in particular canyons. This spatial and thematic bias, together with the paucity of truly inter-disciplinary studies, may be the most important limitation to the integrated knowledge and development of canyon research and hinders a global, more comprehensive understanding of canyon patterns and processes. The scientific landscape mapping and the complementary results are made available online as an open and interactive platform. In order to assess the importance of submarine canyons for the conservation and management on the deep sea, a study area and a modelling species were selected: the Mediterranean Sea and Lophelia pertusa, a cold-water coral species. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses several submarine canyon systems and L. pertusa is an ecosystem engineering species that occurs frequently in these geomorphological features and provides refuge, nursery grounds and physical support for a remarkable diversity of other life forms. Considering that the distribution of L. pertusa in the Mediterranean Sea is probably underestimated and that this information is crucial to assess the relevance of canyons in the Mediterranean seascape, I estimated the habitat suitability and draw uncertainty maps for this region based on environmental predictors and an ensemble approach of three machine-learning algorithms. The results suggest that in the Mediterranean Sea, L. pertusa encounters environmental settings close to its physiological limits but, despite the highly variable quality of the seascape, submarine canyons were identified as high suitability areas, especially across the Western and Central Mediterranean margins. In addition to the environmental suitability, the ecosystem connectivity determines the species distribution, the metapopulation dynamics and population resilience. I simulated the transport of L. pertusa larvae in the Mediterranean Sea using a biophysical model to estimate their potential dispersal as well as a network analysis to evaluate the habitat availability based on parameters such as suitability, spatial configuration of the seascape and the oceanographic conditions variability. The results suggest that connectivity among Mediterranean ecoregions is weak and that the intensification of climate-driven events (e.g., dense shelf water cascading) may worsen this scenario. However, the potential exchange of larvae between colonies within the same ecoregion was significant, favoring population resilience to local disturbances. Habitat areas with high quality and larval flux were identified as a priority for the conservation of L. pertusa, and subsequently also for their associated fauna. Once again, I showed that habitat areas on submarine canyons may play an important role in the connectivity of L. pertusa Mediterranean populations. However, these habitat areas are subjected to intense anthropogenic pressures, which allied to the effects of climate change, may impose greater challenges to their conservation. Apart from three French marine protected areas in the Gulf of Lion, the development of conservation efforts considering submarine canyon in the Mediterranean Sea is negligible. The knowledge produced in this thesis provides scientific evidence to support decision-making in conservation and planning of marine protected areas networks in the Mediterranean Sea and illustrates the relevance of submarine canyon for the management and conservation of deep-sea biodiversity.Os canhões submarinos são estruturas geomorfológicas complexas localizadas nas margens continentais. São reconhecidos como zonas importantes de biodiversidade no mar profundo onde os níveis de produtividade biológica são de modo geral superiores às áreas adjacentes. Estes ecossistemas marinhos desempenham um papel fundamental na prestação de bens e serviços essenciais ao bem-estar humano. Não obstante, estes ecossistemas estão cada vez mais sujeitos a efeitos nefastos que advêm de ações diretas das atividades humanas, mas também, resultantes de alterações climáticas. O isolamento natural dos canhões submarinos em conjunto com estas mudanças, pode ter implicações para a conectividade das populações biológicas que os habitam, bem como para a manutenção da biodiversidade associada. Avaliar as causas e efeitos ecológicos de tais mudanças só será possível através de uma abordagem holística e interdisciplinar. Partindo de uma base de dados bibliográfica abrangente de publicações dedicadas ao estudo de canhões submarinos, usei técnicas de data mining e de análise de redes para mapear o conhecimento reunido até agora. Foram identificados clusters de conhecimento, a evolução histórica da investigação em canhões submarinos, bem como, os tópicos emergentes e lacunas no conhecimento sobre estas estruturas. Os tópicos mais desenvolvidos dizem respeito a áreas associadas à “Geologia e Geofísica”, “Processos Oceanográficos” e “Biologia e Ecologia”. Por outro lado, temas como “Biogeoquímica” e modelação ecológica estão entre os menos explorados. Estudos referentes a impactos antropogénicos nestes ecossistemas e alterações induzidas por processos climáticos foram detetados apenas em publicação datadas da última década. A rede de tópicos gerada reflete uma interdisciplinaridade latente na investigação associada a canhões que se desenvolveu principalmente durante o século XXI, apoiada por colaborações internacionais da comunidade científica. No entanto, a investigação científica em canhões submarinos apresenta uma tendência clara direccionada para determinados temas e áreas geográficas. Tópicos específicos são abordados preferencialmente em determinados canhões, enquanto que um número muito pequeno destas estruturas concentra a maior parte dos trabalhos desenvolvidos. Este resultado juntamente com o número reduzido de estudos interdisciplinares, foi a mais importante limitação detetada que poderá dificultar a integração do conhecimento já reunido sobre estas estruturas, impedido uma compreensão mais abrangente dos padrões e processos associados aos canhões submarinos. Os resultados alcançados foram disponibilizados numa plataforma online aberta para exploração interativa e direcionada dos conteúdos. No sentido de avaliar a importância dos canhões para a conservação e gestão da biodiversidade no mar profundo, foi definida como área de estudo o Mar Mediterrâneo e selecionada como espécie modelo, um coral de água fria: Lophelia pertusa. O Mar Mediterrâneo engloba vários sistemas de canhões submarinos enquanto que L. pertusa é uma espécie engenheira de ecossistemas que cria refúgio, áreas de berçário e habitat para uma panóplia de outras espécies, ocorrendo frequentemente em canhões. Uma vez que a distribuição de L. pertusa no Mar Mediterrâneo está provavelmente subestimada e que esta informação é fundamental para avaliar a relevância dos canhões na área de estudo, desenvolvi um modelo de nicho ecológico baseado em variáveis ambientais e uma abordagem conjunta de três algoritmos. Os resultados obtidos foram mapas de adequação ambiental, bem como, de avaliação da capacidade de previsão do modelo. Os resultados sugerem que no mar Mediterrâneo, esta espécie de coral encontra condições ambientais próximas dos seus limites fisiológicos. Apesar disso, áreas com condições favoráveis à ocorrência de L. pertusa foram detetadas em canhões submarinos, principalmente no Mediterrâneo Ocidental e Central. A par da qualidade dos habitats, a distribuição dos organismos, a dinâmica metapopulacional e a resiliência das populações a perturbações estão fortemente relacionadas com a conectividade dos ecossistemas. Neste contexto, simulei o transporte de larvas de L. pertusa no Mar Mediterrâneo usando um modelo biofísico para estimar o seu potencial de dispersão. Com os resultados do modelo e usando análises de rede, avaliei a disponibilidade de habitat com base em parâmetros como a qualidade, configuração espacial da paisagem marinha e variabilidade oceanográfica. Os resultados sugerem que a conectividade entre as eco-regiões do Mar Mediterrâneo é baixa e que a intensificação de eventos impulsionados por condições climáticas (por exemplo, dense shelf water cascading) pode agravar este cenário. No entanto, a potencial troca de larvas entre colónias dentro da mesma eco-região foi significativa, podendo favorecer a resiliência das populações a perturbações locais. Áreas de habitat com boa qualidade e com fluxo de larvas foram identificadas como prioritárias para a conservação de L. pertusa, com benefícios eventuais também para a fauna associada a este coral. Mais uma vez, áreas de habitat incluídas em canhões submarinos foram identificadas como as mais relevantes no Mar Mediterrâneo, devendo desempenhar um papel importante na conectividade de populações desta espécie. Contudo, estas áreas estão igualmente sujeitas de forma intensa a atividades humanas com efeitos prejudiciais nos ecossistemas, e que, aliadas aos efeitos das alterações climáticas, podem dificultar a implementação de medidas de conservação eficazes. Com a exceção de três áreas marinhas protegidas francesas no Golfo do Leão, o desenvolvimento de esforços de conservação no Mar Mediterrâneo que incluam áreas com canhões submarinos é ainda negligenciável. Os resultados apresentados nesta tese fornecem evidências científicas que poderão apoiar medidas de conservação e gestão com vista à criação de redes de áreas marinhas protegidas no Mar Mediterrâneo. Neste sentido, proponho os canhões submarinos como áreas prioritárias para a conservação da biodiversidade de mar profundo na área de estudo.PEst-C/MAR/LA0017/2013 e UID/AMB/50017/2013Programa Doutoral em Biologia e Ecologia das Alterações Globai

How Much Longer Will it Take? A Ten-year Review of the Implementation of United Nations General Assembly Resolutions 61/105, 64/72 and 66/68 on the Management of Bottom Fisheries in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2002 adopted the first in a series of resolutions regarding the conservation of biodiversity in the deep sea. Prompted by seriousconcerns raised by scientists, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and numerous States,these resolutions progressively committed States to act both individually and through regional fishery management organizations (RFMOs) to either manage bottom fisheries in areas beyond national jurisdiction to prevent significant adverse impacts on deep-sea species, ecosystems and biodiversity or else prohibit bottom fishing from taking place.Ten years have passed since the adoption of resolution 61/105 in 2006, calling on States to take a set of specific actions to manage bottom fisheries in areas beyond national jurisdiction to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) from the adverse impacts of bottom fishing and ensure the sustainability of deep-sea fish stocks. Despite the considerable progress by some RFMOs, there remain significant gaps in the implementation of key elements and commitments in the resolutions. The Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (DSCC) has prepared this report to assist the UNGA in its review in 2016 and to address the following question: How effectively have the resolutions been implemented

Elucidation of etiology of colorectal cancer: A study on silencing of p16 gene by promoter hypermethylation

Colorectal cancer (CRC), commonly known as bowel cancer is the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths in the western world. Colorectal cancer is one of the leading malignancies worldwide. CRC has been reported to show geographical variation in its incidence, even within areas of ethnic homogeneity. The usual treatment is surgery and subsequent chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Cancer development and progression is dictated by series of alterations in genes such as tumor suppressor genes, DNA repair genes, oncogenes and others. In colorectal carcinogenesis disturbances different from mutations called an epigenetic regulation are also taken into consideration. The aim of this study was to study the promoter hypermethylation of CpG islands of p16 gene in colorectal cancer patients among the Kashmiri population. The study included 70 surgically obtained colorectal samples among which 50 were obtained from colorectal cancer patients and 20 were histopathologically normal colorectal samples. All the samples were histopathologically confirmed before further processing. DNA was extracted from all the samples and was modified using bisulphite modification kit. Methylation-specific polymerase (MSP) chain reaction was used for analysis of the promoter hypermethylation status of p16 gene. The genetic analysis of the cases and controls by MSP- PCR method, for checking the promoter hypermethylation of CpG islands of p16 gene revealed that unlike other high risk regions, Kashmiri population has a different promoter hypermethylation profile of p16 gene. 66% of the cases showed p16 promoter hypermethylation while as 34% of the cases were nonhypermethylated. The study also revealed that 20% of the normal cases also had promoter hypermethylation of p16 gene and 80% did not showed promoter hypermethylation of p16 gene. The association of promoter hypermethylation with colorectal cancer was evaluated by χ2 (Chi square) test with Odds ratio and was found to be significant. Among 29 male cases and 21 female cases, the association of promoter hypermethylation with colorectal cancer was evaluated using Fisher’s exact test and was found to be significant in both males and females. Occurrence of p16 promoter hypermethylation was found to be unequally distributed in males and females with more frequency in males than in females but the difference was not statistically significant. When the frequency of p16 promoter hypermethylation was compared with clinical staging of the disease, p16 promoter hypermethylation was found to be certainly higher in Stage III/IV (83.33%) compared to Stage I/ II (56.25%) but the difference was not statistically significant. Also, the degree of p16 promoter hypermethylation increased with the increasing severity of the lesion but the difference was not again statistically significant. These results clearly suggest that p16 aberrant promoter hypermethylation in Kashmiri population contributes to the process of carcinogenesis in colorectal cancer and is reportedly one of the commonest epigenetic changes in the development of human CRC. It also demonstrates that hypermethylation of p16 gene can be designated as epigenetic biomarker for the screening, diagnosis and prognosis of colorectal cancer. The data gives a clue that p16 gene expression can be readily and fully restored and growth rate of cancer cells decreased by treatment of cancer cells with demethylating agents and DNA methylation inhibitors

Oceanography

How inappropriate to call this planet Earth when it is quite clearly Ocean (Arthur C. Clarke). Life has been originated in the oceans, human health and activities depend from the oceans and the world life is modulated by marine and oceanic processes. From the micro-scale, like coastal processes, to macro-scale, the oceans, the seas and the marine life, play the main role to maintain the earth equilibrium, both from a physical and a chemical point of view. Since ancient times, the world's oceans discovery has brought to humanity development and wealth of knowledge, the metaphors of Ulysses and Jason, represent the cultural growth gained through the explorations and discoveries. The modern oceanographic research represents one of the last frontier of the knowledge of our planet, it depends on the oceans exploration and so it is strictly connected to the development of new technologies. Furthermore, other scientific and social disciplines can provide many fundamental inputs to complete the description of the entire ocean ecosystem. Such multidisciplinary approach will lead us to understand the better way to preserve our "Blue Planet": the Earth

[Arctic] Greenland ice sheet [in “State of the Climate in 2012”]

Melting at the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet set new records for extent and melt index (i.e., the number of days on which melting occurred multiplied by the area where melting was detected) for the period 1979–2012, according to passive microwave observations (e.g., Tedesco 2007, 2009; Mote and Anderson 1995). Melt extent reached ~97% of the ice sheet surface during a rare, ice-sheet-wide event on 11–12 July (Fig. 5.13a; Nghiem et al. 2012). This was almost four times greater than the average melt extent for 1981–2010. The 2012 standardized melting index (SMI, defined as the melting index minus its average and divided by its standard deviation) was +2.4, almost twice the previous record of about +1.3 set in 2010

State of the Climate in 2010

Several large-scale climate patterns influenced climate conditions and weather patterns across the globe during 2010. The transition from a warm El Niño phase at the beginning of the year to a cool La Niña phase by July contributed to many notable events, ranging from record wetness across much of Australia to historically low Eastern Pacific basin and near-record high North Atlantic basin hurricane activity. The remaining five main hurricane basins experienced below- to well-below-normal tropical cyclone activity. The negative phase of the Arctic Oscillation was a major driver of Northern Hemisphere temperature patterns during 2009/10 winter and again in late 2010. It contributed to record snowfall and unusually low temperatures over much of northern Eurasia and parts of the United States, while bringing above-normal temperatures to the high northern latitudes. The February Arctic Oscillation Index value was the most negative since records began in 1950. The 2010 average global land and ocean surface temperature was among the two warmest years on record. The Arctic continued to warm at about twice the rate of lower latitudes. The eastern and tropical Pacific Ocean cooled about 1°C from 2009 to 2010, reflecting the transition from the 2009/10 El Niño to the 2010/11 La Niña. Ocean heat fluxes contributed to warm sea surface temperature anomalies in the North Atlantic and the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans. Global integrals of upper ocean heat content for the past several years have reached values consistently higher than for all prior times in the record, demonstrating the dominant role of the ocean in the Earth’s energy budget. Deep and abyssal waters of Antarctic origin have also trended warmer on average since the early 1990s. Lower tropospheric temperatures typically lag ENSO surface fluctuations by two to four months, thus the 2010 temperature was dominated by the warm phase El Niño conditions that occurred during the latter half of 2009 and early 2010 and was second warmest on record. The stratosphere continued to be anomalously cool. Annual global precipitation over land areas was about five percent above normal. Precipitation over the ocean was drier than normal after a wet year in 2009. Overall, saltier (higher evaporation) regions of the ocean surface continue to be anomalously salty, and fresher (higher precipitation) regions continue to be anomalously fresh. This salinity pattern, which has held since at least 2004, suggests an increase in the hydrological cycle. Sea ice conditions in the Arctic were significantly different than those in the Antarctic during the year. The annual minimum ice extent in the Arctic—reached in September—was the third lowest on record since 1979. In the Antarctic, zonally averaged sea ice extent reached an all-time record maximum from mid-June through late August and again from mid-November through early December. Corresponding record positive Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode Indices influenced the Antarctic sea ice extents. Greenland glaciers lost more mass than any other year in the decade-long record. The Greenland Ice Sheet lost a record amount of mass, as the melt rate was the highest since at least 1958, and the area and duration of the melting was greater than any year since at least 1978. High summer air temperatures and a longer melt season also caused a continued increase in the rate of ice mass loss from small glaciers and ice caps in the Canadian Arctic. Coastal sites in Alaska show continuous permafrost warming and sites in Alaska, Canada, and Russia indicate more significant warming in relatively cold permafrost than in warm permafrost in the same geographical area. With regional differences, permafrost temperatures are now up to 2°C warmer than they were 20 to 30 years ago. Preliminary data indicate there is a high probability that 2010 will be the 20th consecutive year that alpine glaciers have lost mass. Atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations continued to rise and ozone depleting substances continued to decrease. Carbon dioxide increased by 2.60 ppm in 2010, a rate above both the 2009 and the 1980–2010 average rates. The global ocean carbon dioxide uptake for the 2009 transition period from La Niña to El Niño conditions, the most recent period for which analyzed data are available, is estimated to be similar to the long-term average. The 2010 Antarctic ozone hole was among the lowest 20% compared with other years since 1990, a result of warmer-than-average temperatures in the Antarctic stratosphere during austral winter between mid-July and early September. List of authors and affiliations... .3 Abstract 16 1. Introduction 17 2. Global Climate 27 a. Overview .. 27 b. Temperature 36; 1. Surface temperature .. 36; 2. Lower tropospheric temperatures 37; 3. Lower stratospheric temperatures .. 38; 4. Lake temperature 39 c. Hydrologic cycle .. 40; I. Surface humidity .. 40; 2. Total column water vapor .41; 3. Precipitation . 42; 4. Northern Hemisphere continental snow cover extent ... 44; 5. Global cloudiness 45; 6. River discharge . 46; 7. Permafrost thermal state . 48; 8. Groundwater and terrestrial water storage .. 49; 9. Soil moisture ..52; 10. Lake levels 53 d. Atmospheric circulation 55; 1. Mean sea level pressure . 55; 2. Ocean surface wind speed 56 e. Earth radiation budget at top-of-atmosphere ... 58 f. Atmosphere composition ...59; 1. Atmosphere chemical composition ...59; 2. Aerosols 65; 3. Stratospheric ozone 67 g. Land surface properties . 68; 1. Alpine glaciers and ice sheets .. 68; 2. Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FAPAR) ... 72; 3. Biomass burning ... 72; 4. Forest biomass and biomass change .74 3. Global Oceans 77 a. Overview .. 77 b. Sea surface temperatures .. 78 c. Ocean heat content .81 d. Global ocean heat fluxes ... 84 e. Sea surface salinity .. 86 f. Subsurface salinity ... 88 g. Surface currents ... 92; 1. Pacific Ocean 93; 2. Indian Ocean 94; 3. Atlantic Ocean . 95 h. Meridional overturning circulation observations in the subtropical North Atlantic . 95 i. Sea level variations ... 98 j. The global ocean carbon cycle 100; 1. Air-sea carbon dioxide fluxes 100; 2. Subsurface carbon inventory . 102; 3. Global ocean phytoplankton . 105 4. Tropics ... 109 a. Overview 109 b. ENSO and the tropical Pacific 109; 1. Oceanic conditions ... 109; 2. Atmospheric circulation: Tropics .110; 3. Atmospheric circulation: Extratropics ...112; 4. ENSO temperature and precipitation impacts .113 c. Tropical intraseasonal activity .113 d. Tropical cyclones 114; 1. Overview .114; 2. Atlantic basin ...115; 3. Eastern North Pacific basin .121; 4. Western North Pacific basin .. 123; 5. Indian Ocean basins .. 127; 6. Southwest Pacific basin 129; 7. Australian region basin 130 e. Tropical cyclone heat potential .. 132 f. Intertropical Convergence Zones . 134; 1. Pacific ... 134; 2. Atlantic 136 g. Atlantic multidecadal oscillation 137 h. Indian Ocean Dipole . 138 5. The arctic ... 143 a. Overview 143 b. Atmosphere 143 c. Ocean .. 145; 1. Wind-driven circulation . 145; 2. Ocean temperature and salinity 145; 3. Biology and geochemistry .. 146; 4. Sea level .. 148 d. Sea ice cover ... 148; 1. Sea ice extent . 148; 2. Sea ice age ... 149; 3. Sea ice thickness 150 e. Land .. 150; 1. Vegetation ... 150; 2. Permafrost ... 152; 3. River discharge ... 153; 4. Terrestrial snow 154; 5. Glaciers outside Greenland 155 f. Greenland ... 156; 1. Coastal surface air temperature . 156; 2. Upper air temperatures . 158; 3. Atmospheric circulation . 158; 4. Surface melt extent and duration and albedo . 159; 5. Surface mass balance along the K-Transect .. 159; 6. Total Greenland mass loss from GRACE . 160; 7. Marine-terminating glacier area changes .. 160 6. ANTARCTICA ..161 a. Overview .161 b. Circulation ...161 c. Surface manned and automatic weather station observations 163 d. Net precipitation ... 164 e. 2009/10 Seasonal melt extent and duration . 167 f. Sea ice extent and concentration .. 167 g. Ozone depletion 170 7. Regional climates ... 173 a. Overview 173 b. North America ... 173; 1. Canada 173; 2. United States .. 175; 3. México . 179 c. Central America and the Caribbean .. 182; 1. Central America 182; 2. The Caribbean ... 183 d. South America .. 186; 1. Northern South America and the Tropical Andes . 186; 2. Tropical South America east of the Andes .. 187; 3. Southern South America 190 e. Africa 192; 1. Northern Africa 192; 2. Western Africa .. 193; 3. Eastern Africa . 194; 4. Southern Africa .. 196; 5. Western Indian Ocean countries 198 f. Europe . 199; 1. Overview 199; 2. Central and Western Europe 202; 3. The Nordic and Baltic countries . 203; 4. Iberia 205; 5. Mediterranean, Italian, and Balkan Peninsulas .206; 6. Eastern Europe .. 207; 7. Middle East ..208 g. Asia ... 210; 1. Russia ... 210; 2. East Asia ..215; 3. South Asia 217; 4. Southwest Asia ...219 h. Oceania ...222; 1. Southwest Pacific ..222; 2. Northwest Pacific, Micronesia .. 224; 3. Australia .. 227; 4. New Zealand .. 229 8. SEASONAL SUMMARIES ... 233 Acknowledgments 237 Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations 238 References . 24