The burden of disease and injury in the United States 1996

Background: Burden of disease studies have been implemented in many countries using the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) to assess major health problems. Important objectives of the study were to quantify intra-country differentials in health outcomes and to place the United States situation in the international context. Methods: We applied methods developed for the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) to data specific to the United States to compute Disability-Adjusted Life Years. Estimates are provided by age and gender for the general population of the United States and for each of the four official race groups: White; Black; American Indian or Alaskan Native; and Asian or Pacific Islander. Several adjustments of GBD methods were made: the inclusion of race; a revised list of causes; and a revised algorithm to allocate cardiovascular disease garbage codes to ischaemic heart disease. We compared the results of this analysis to international estimates published by the World Health Organization for developed and developing regions of the world. Results: In the mid-1990s the leading sources of premature death and disability in the United States, as measured by DALYs, were: cardiovascular conditions, breast and lung cancers, depression, osteoarthritis, diabetes mellitus, and alcohol use and abuse. In addition, motor vehicle-related injuries and the HIV epidemic exacted a substantial toll on the health status of the US population, particularly among racial minorities. The major sources of death and disability in these latter populations were more similar to patterns of burden in developing rather than developed countries. Conclusion: Estimating DALYs specifically for the United States provides a comprehensive assessment of health problems for this country compared to what is available using mortality data alone

Eight Americas: Investigating Mortality Disparities across Races, Counties, and Race-Counties in the United States

BACKGROUND: The gap between the highest and lowest life expectancies for race-county combinations in the United States is over 35 y. We divided the race-county combinations of the US population into eight distinct groups, referred to as the “eight Americas,” to explore the causes of the disparities that can inform specific public health intervention policies and programs. METHODS AND FINDINGS: The eight Americas were defined based on race, location of the county of residence, population density, race-specific county-level per capita income, and cumulative homicide rate. Data sources for population and mortality figures were the Bureau of the Census and the National Center for Health Statistics. We estimated life expectancy, the risk of mortality from specific diseases, health insurance, and health-care utilization for the eight Americas. The life expectancy gap between the 3.4 million high-risk urban black males and the 5.6 million Asian females was 20.7 y in 2001. Within the sexes, the life expectancy gap between the best-off and the worst-off groups was 15.4 y for males (Asians versus high-risk urban blacks) and 12.8 y for females (Asians versus low-income southern rural blacks). Mortality disparities among the eight Americas were largest for young (15–44 y) and middle-aged (45–59 y) adults, especially for men. The disparities were caused primarily by a number of chronic diseases and injuries with well-established risk factors. Between 1982 and 2001, the ordering of life expectancy among the eight Americas and the absolute difference between the advantaged and disadvantaged groups remained largely unchanged. Self-reported health plan coverage was lowest for western Native Americans and low-income southern rural blacks. Crude self-reported health-care utilization, however, was slightly higher for the more disadvantaged populations. CONCLUSIONS: Disparities in mortality across the eight Americas, each consisting of millions or tens of millions of Americans, are enormous by all international standards. The observed disparities in life expectancy cannot be explained by race, income, or basic health-care access and utilization alone. Because policies aimed at reducing fundamental socioeconomic inequalities are currently practically absent in the US, health disparities will have to be at least partly addressed through public health strategies that reduce risk factors for chronic diseases and injuries

Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol:a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk

Cardiovascular disease accounts for much morbidity and mortality in developed countries and is becoming increasingly important in less developed regions. Systolic blood pressure above 115 mm Hg accounts for two-thirds of strokes and almost half of ischaemic heart disease cases, and cholesterol concentrations exceeding 3.8 mmol/L for 18% and 55%, respectively. We report estimates of the population health effects, and costs of selected interventions to reduce the risks associated with high cholesterol concentrations and blood pressure in areas of the world with differing epidemiological profiles

Probability of Death between the Ages of 15 and 59 y in the Eight Americas

<div><p>(A) Probability of death between the ages of 15 and 59 y in the eight Americas from all causes.</p> <p>(B) Probability of death between the ages of 15 and 59 y in the eight Americas after deleting deaths from homicide and HIV.</p></div

County Life Expectancies by Race

<div><p>Deaths were averaged for 1997–2001 to reduce sensitivity to small numbers and outliers.</p> <p>(A) Life expectancy at birth for black males and females. Only counties with more than five deaths for any 5-y age group (0–85) were mapped, to avoid unstable results.</p> <p>(B) Life expectancy at birth for white males and females.</p></div

Life Expectancy at Birth in the Eight Americas (1982–2001)

<p>Estimates for Americas 1 and 3 have been adjusted for differential underestimation of population and mortality among Asians (see <a href="http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030260#st2" target="_blank">Methods</a>).</p

Burden of Disease Attributable to the Ten Leading Risk Factors in the very-low-mortality countries of the Region of Americas

<p>The estimates refer to the Global Burden of Disease epidemiological region that includes Canada, Cuba, and the US [<a href="http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030260#pmed-0030260-b045" target="_blank">45</a>]; more than 85% of this region's population live in the US and most data sources apply to the US.</p