Histochemical and immunohistological approach to comparative neuromuscular diseases.

The broad category of neuromuscular diseases covers conditions that involve the weakness or wasting of the body muscles. These problems may occur in the spinal cord, the peripheral nerves or the muscle fibers. Some may be hereditary, while others are acquired. Commonly recognized conditions fall into the categories of myopathies, which are diseases of the muscle like muscular dystrophy, disorders of the junction where the nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscle like myasthenia gravis, and neuropathies, which are diseases of the peripheral nervous system. The diagnosis of most neuromuscular diseases rest on careful clinical evaluation of the patient, electromyography, the muscle biopsy, and in some instances, molecular genetic studies. Muscle biopsy, associated to histochemical and immunohistological techniques, plays a key role in diagnosis of many neuromuscular disorders. A number of morphological abnormalities of muscle can be recognized on histological stains such as haematoxylin and eosin and Engel trichrome. Histochemical techniques are essential for the study of muscle biopsies for four main reasons. First, they demonstrate the non-uniform nature of the muscle highlighting the different biochemical properties of specific fibre type and their selective involvement in certain disease processes. Second, they may show an absences of a particular enzyme. Third, an excess of a particular substrate can be demonstrated. Fourth, they may show structural changes in the muscle which would not be apparent with routine histological stains, such as the enzyme-deficient cores in central core disease "mouth-eaten" fibers, and abnormalities in the distribution of mitochondria. In some neuromuscular disorders there could be only non-specific myopathological features. However, a number of proteins, including sarcolemmal, sarcomeric, and nuclear proteins as well as enzymes with defects responsible for neuromuscular disorders, have been identified during the past two decades, allowing a more specific and firm diagnosis of muscle diseases. Identification of protein defects relies predominantly on immunohistochemical preparations and on Western blot analysis. While immunohistochemistry is very useful in identifying abnormal expression of primary protein abnormalities in recessive conditions, it is less helpful in detecting primary defects in dominantly inherited disorders. Abnormal immunohistochemical expression patterns can be confirmed by Western blot analysis which may also be informative in dominant disorders. Besides identification of specific protein defects, immunohistochemistry is also helpful in the differentiation of inflammatory myopathies by subtyping cellular infiltrates and demonstrating up-regulation of subtle immunological parameters. This review will summarize and describe the impact that histochemistry and immunohistochemistry has had and the possibilities it has opened up in the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders in human as well as in veterinary myology

Histochemical and immunohistological approach to comparative neuromuscular diseases.

The broad category of neuromuscular diseases covers conditions that involve the weakness or wasting of the body muscles. These problems may occur in the spinal cord, the peripheral nerves or the muscle fibers. Some may be hereditary, while others are acquired. Commonly recognized conditions fall into the categories of myopathies, which are diseases of the muscle like muscular dystrophy, disorders of the junction where the nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscle like myasthenia gravis, and neuropathies, which are diseases of the peripheral nervous system. The diagnosis of most neuromuscular diseases rest on careful clinical evaluation of the patient, electromyography, the muscle biopsy, and in some instances, molecular genetic studies. Muscle biopsy, associated to histochemical and immunohistological techniques, plays a key role in diagnosis of many neuromuscular disorders. A number of morphological abnormalities of muscle can be recognized on histological stains such as haematoxylin and eosin and Engel trichrome. Histochemical techniques are essential for the study of muscle biopsies for four main reasons. First, they demonstrate the non-uniform nature of the muscle highlighting the different biochemical properties of specific fibre type and their selective involvement in certain disease processes. Second, they may show an absences of a particular enzyme. Third, an excess of a particular substrate can be demonstrated. Fourth, they may show structural changes in the muscle which would not be apparent with routine histological stains, such as the enzyme-deficient cores in central core disease "mouth-eaten" fibers, and abnormalities in the distribution of mitochondria. In some neuromuscular disorders there could be only non-specific myopathological features. However, a number of proteins, including sarcolemmal, sarcomeric, and nuclear proteins as well as enzymes with defects responsible for neuromuscular disorders, have been identified during the past two decades, allowing a more specific and firm diagnosis of muscle diseases. Identification of protein defects relies predominantly on immunohistochemical preparations and on Western blot analysis. While immunohistochemistry is very useful in identifying abnormal expression of primary protein abnormalities in recessive conditions, it is less helpful in detecting primary defects in dominantly inherited disorders. Abnormal immunohistochemical expression patterns can be confirmed by Western blot analysis which may also be informative in dominant disorders. Besides identification of specific protein defects, immunohistochemistry is also helpful in the differentiation of inflammatory myopathies by subtyping cellular infiltrates and demonstrating up-regulation of subtle immunological parameters. This review will summarize and describe the impact that histochemistry and immunohistochemistry has had and the possibilities it has opened up in the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders in human as well as in veterinary myology

Quantitative histologic evaluation reveals different degree of liver atrophy in cachectic and starved dogs

Cases of neglect in dogs are among the forensic cases submitted most commonly for postmortem examination. Starvation is a form of primary protein-energy malnutrition in which the availability of food is severely restricted or absent; cachexia is a form of protein-energy malnutrition secondary to progressive metabolic derangement during chronic diseases. Despite both conditions leading to an emaciated appearance of the cadaver, discrimination between the two is crucial in forensic cases. We hypothesized that among emaciated dogs, the degree of liver atrophy in starved animals is higher than in cachectic ones, and that this can be investigated microscopically, regardless of the degree of cadaver decomposition. We studied 46 animals: 23 starved, 11 cachectic, and 12 control dogs. Portal tracts were identified by the presence of a bile duct and associated vascular structures recognizable by a thin rim of collagen still visible regardless of the degree of cadaver decomposition. The number of portal tracts per lpf (10×) was used as an indirect measure of atrophy. The number of portal tracts in starved dogs was significantly higher ( p &lt; 0.01) compared to both cachectic and control dogs, indicating a higher degree of liver atrophy in starvation. Measuring the density of portal tracts offers a reliable additional tool for discrimination between starvation and cachexia. </jats:p

Short communication: Detection of human Torque teno virus in the milk of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)

Forty-four raw milk and 15 serum samples from 44 healthy water buffaloes reared in Caserta, southern Italy, the most important region in Europe for buffalo breeding, were examined to evaluate the presence of Torque teno viruses (TTV) using molecular tools. Furthermore, 8 pooled pasteurized milk samples (from dairy factories having excellent sanitary conditions) and 6 Mozzarella cheese samples were also tested. Four of the cheese samples were commercial Mozzarella cheese; the remaining 2 were prepared with TTV-containing milk. Human TTV were detected and confirmed by sequencing in 7 samples of milk (approximately 16%). No TTV were found in serum, pooled pasteurized milk, or Mozzarella cheese samples. The samples of Mozzarella cheese prepared with TTV-containing milk did not show any presence of TTV, which provides evidence that standard methodological procedures to prepare Mozzarella cheese seem to affect viral structure, making this food fit for human consumption. The 7 TTV species from water buffaloes were identified as genotypes corresponding to the tth31 (3 cases), sle 1981, sle 2031, and NLC030 (2 cases each) human isolates. Although cross-species infection may occur, detection of TTV DNA in milk but not in serum led us to believe that its presence could be due to human contamination rather than a true infection. Finally, the mode of transmission of TTV has not been determined. Contaminated of the food chain with TTV may be a potential risk for human health, representing one of the multiple routes of infection

Extracorporeal shock waves alone or combined with raloxifene promote bone formation and suppress resorption in ovariectomized rats

Osteoporosis is a metabolic skeletal disease characterized by an imbalance between osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and osteoblast-mediated bone formation. We examined the beneficial effect of shock waves (SW) alone or in combination with raloxifene (RAL) on bone loss in ovariectomized rats (OVX). Sixteen weeks after surgery, OVX were treated for five weeks with SW at the antero-lateral side of the right hind leg, one session weekly, at 3 Hz (EFD of 0.33 mJ/mm2), or with RAL (5 mg/kg/die, per os) or with SW+RAL. Sera, femurs, tibiae and vertebrae were sampled for following biochemical and histological analysis. SW, alone or combined with RAL, prevented femur weight reduction and the deterioration of trabecular microarchitecture both in femur and vertebrae. All treatments increased Speed of Sound (SoS) values, improving bone mineral density, altered by OVX. Serum parameters involved in bone remodeling (alkaline phosphatase, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand, osteoprotegerin) and osteoblast proliferation (PTH), altered by ovariectomy, were restored by SW and RAL alone or in combination. In tibiae, SW+RAL significantly reduced cathepsin k and TNF-α levels, indicating the inhibition of osteoclast activity, while all treatments significantly increased runt-related transcription factor 2 and bone morphogenetic-2 expression, suggesting an increase in osteoblastogenic activity. Finally, in bone marrow from tibiae, SW or RAL reduced PPARγ and adiponectin transcription, indicating a shift of mesenchymal cells toward osteoblastogenesis, without showing a synergistic effect. Our data indicate SW therapy, alone and in combination with raloxifene, as an innovative strategy to limit the hypoestrogenic bone loss, restoring the balance between bone formation and resorption

Conjunctival cytological examination, bacteriological culture, and antimicrobial resistance profiles of healthy Mediterranean buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from Southern Italy

Objective: To assess normal conjunctival cytological and bacteriological/fungal flora features in the Mediterranean buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Methods: Swabs were taken from the inferior conjunctival sac of both eyes of 57 healthy female buffaloes aged 24–36 months, with no evidence of ocular disease, farmed in Campania region (Southern Italy), for microbiological analysis. Conjunctival eye specimens of both eyes were subsequently obtained by a cyto-brush, for cytological analysis. The antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial isolates was also determined using the disk-diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar plates. Results: Cytological examination of conjunctival swab specimens (114 eyes) revealed epithelial cells (basal, intermediate, columnar and superficial) in all samples, whereas neutrophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells were present in 70%, 10% and 2% of samples, respectively. Microorganisms, for a total of 261 aerobic bacteria and 6 fungi, were isolated from 112/114 conjunctival samples [98.25%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 93.18–99.70]. Only two conjunctival swabs did not yield bacteria and/or fungi (2/114, 1.75%; 95% CI: 0.30–6.82). Gram-positive aerobes were most commonly cultured (181/261, 69.35%; 95% CI: 63.31–74.81), with Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus lentus predominating. Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated as Gram-negative bacteria (80/261, 30.65%; 95% CI: 25.19–36.69). The antimicrobial resistance patterns of the isolated bacteria showed amoxycillin/clavulanic acid and cephalothin as the least sensitive antibiotics for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Conclusions: These results provided first information on normal conjunctival ocular microflora and cytological features in Mediterranean buffalo

Evaluation of the Local Immune Response to Hydatid Cysts in Sheep Liver

In order to characterize the inflammatory phenotype of livers of sheep naturally infected by cystic echinococcosis, 100 sheep livers have been macroscopically assessed for the presence of hydatid cysts and sampled for histopathological and molecular analysis. According to gross and microscopic examination, livers were subsequently classified into three groups: normal liver (Group A), liver with the presence of fertile hydatid cysts (Group B), and liver with the presence of sterile hydatid cysts (Group C). Immunohistochemical analyses were accomplished using primary antibodies anti-Iba1, anti-CD3, anti-CD20, anti-TGF-β, and anti-MMP9. Finally, real-time PCR was performed in order to estimate the concentration levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (INF-γ), interleukin (IL)-12, IL-10, and TGF-β. Immunohistochemical analysis showed a diffuse immunolabelling of mononuclear cells for Iba-1 and TGF-β and a higher amount of CD20+ B cells compared to CD3+ T cells in both Groups B and C. The expression levels of Th-1-like immune cytokines TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-12 did not show significant statistical differences. However, we found a significant increase in expression levels of Th-2 immune cytokines TGF-β and IL-10 in Groups B and C compared to Group A. Taken together, our findings suggest that macrophages have a predominant role in the local immune response to cystic echinococcosis. Moreover, we can speculate that Th2 immunity may be dominant, corroborating the idea that B cells are decisively essential in the control of the immune response during parasitic infection and that the immunomodulatory role of IL-10 and TGF-β may ensure the persistence of the parasite within the host