An Ecological Approach to Studying Sri Lanka’s Past: Contributions of Siran Deraniyagala

An appreciation of Siran Deraniyagala with a focus on zooarchaeology

Diversification of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae, Pseudophilautus) in Sri Lanka - Timing and geographic context

US National Science Foundation (DEB 0345885) to CJS and JH; National Geographic Society (7612-04) to CJS; and Society of Systematic Biologists Graduate Student Award for Research to MM. MM was also supported by a Harvard University Center for the Environment (HUCE) Ziff Environmental Postdoctoral Fellowship. (DEB 0345885 - US National Science Foundation; 7612-04 - National Geographic Society; Society of Systematic Biologists Graduate Student Award for Research; Harvard University Center for the Environment (HUCE) Ziff Environmental Postdoctoral Fellowship)Accepted manuscrip

Predicted Pleistocene-Holocene range shifts of the tiger (Panthera tigris)

Aim In this article, we modelled the potential range shifts of tiger (Panthera tigris) populations over the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, to provide new insights into the evolutionary history and interconnectivity between populations of this endangered species. Location Asia. Methods We used an ecological niche approach and applied a maximum entropy (Maxent) framework to model potential distributions of tigers. Bioclimatic conditions for the present day and mid-Holocene, and for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), were used to represent interglacial and glacial conditions of the Late Pleistocene, respectively. Results Our results show that the maximum potential tiger range during modern climates (without human impacts) would be continuous from the Indian subcontinent to north-east Siberia. During the LGM, distributions are predicted to have contracted to southern China, India and Southeast Asia and remained largely contiguous. A potential distribution gap between Peninsular Malaya and Sumatra could have effectively separated tigers on the Sunda Islands from those in continental Asia during interglacials. Main conclusions The continuous modelled distribution of tigers in mainland Asia supports the idea of mainly unimpeded gene flow between all populations throughout the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Thus, our data support a pragmatic approach to tiger conservation management, especially of mainland populations, as it is likely that only recent anthropogenic changes caused separation of these populations. In contrast, Sunda tigers are likely to have separated and differentiated following the Last Glacial Maximum and thus warrant separate management

Habitat use affects morphological diversification in dragon lizards

Habitat use may lead to variation in diversity among evolutionary lineages because habitats differ in the variety of ways they allow for species to make a living. Here, we show that structural habitats contribute to differential diversification of limb and body form in dragon lizards (Agamidae). Based on phylogenetic analysis and ancestral state reconstructions for 90 species, we find that multiple lineages have independently adopted each of four habitat use types: rock-dwelling, terrestriality, semi-arboreality and arboreality. Given these reconstructions, we fit models of evolution to species’ morphological trait values and find that rock-dwelling and arboreality limit diversification relative to terrestriality and semi-arboreality. Models preferred by Akaike information criterion infer slower rates of size and shape evolution in lineages inferred to occupy rocks and trees, and model-averaged rate estimates are slowest for these habitat types. These results suggest that ground-dwelling facilitates ecomorphological differentiation and that use of trees or rocks impedes diversification

FIGURE 9. Pseudophilautus hankeni n in Two new species of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka

FIGURE 9. Pseudophilautus hankeni n. sp.: a, lateral; b, dorsal; and c, ventral aspects, respectively, of head of holotype, male, WHT 6304, 21.9 mm SVL. Scale bar: 1 mm

Pseudetroplus Bleeker

Pseudetroplus Bleeker Pseudetroplus Bleeker, in Günther, 1862: 266; type species Etroplus maculatus (Bloch). Pseudetroplus Bleeker, 1862: 125; type species Etroplus coruchi Cuvier. Microgaster Swainson, 1839: 171 (non Latreille, 1804). Diagnosis. Pseudetroplus is distinguished from Etroplus by having 11 (vs. 12–13) pleural ribs; 26–27 (vs. 28–29) total vertebrae; lateral line incomplete (vs. interrupted), with 1–7 (vs. 13–24) pored scales; possessing an occipital prong (vs. possessing an occipital process; Fig. 1D); postero-dorsal outline of operculum curved, with a well-developed process (postero-dorsal outline of operculum straight, lacking a well-developed process); anterior half of median suture of lower pharyngeal jaw serrated (vs. smooth; Fig. 1B); base of the lateral arm of lower pharyngeal jaw broad (vs. narrow; Fig. 1B); first 6 anal-fin pterygiophores arranged anterior to the first 3 (vs. 2) haemal spines (Fig. 1A); supraoccipitalexoccipital prong well developed, extending ventrally over half-way across foramen magnum (vs. less-well developed, not extending into foramen magnum; Fig. 1C). Further, the anterior jaw teeth in Pseudetroplus are acuminate (vs. spatulate in Etroplus; Fig. 2). Pseudetroplus also differs from Etroplus in pigmentation, possessing one or more black blotches on the side of the body (vs. 7–9 prominent dark lateral bars in Etroplus); possessing two brown stripes on the dorsal fin (vs. lacking stripes on the dorsal fin); and lacking a black patch on the pectoral fin, near its base (vs. black blotch present on base of pectoral fin). Discussion. The name Pseudetroplus was published both by Bleeker in Günther (1862) and by Bleeker (1862). While the date of publication of the former is 8 November 1862 (Eschmeyer, 2014), the date of publication of the latter is unknown and must under ICZN (1999) art. 21.3.2 be assumed to be 31 December, 1862. Bleeker (1862) gave the type species as Etroplus coruchi Cuvier, 1830 (type locality: Malabar [Kerala], India), a junior subjective synonym of Chaetodon maculatus Bloch, 1795 (type locality: ponds along the Coromandel coast [Tamil Nadu], India), while Bleeker in Günther (1862) specified the type species as E. maculatus. The statement in Eschmeyer (2014) that "if [Bleeker in Günther] was first, then suratensis is probably the type " is evidently an error, for Günther (1862: 266) wrote: "According to a communication from Dr. v. Bleeker, he intends to separate this species [i.e. E. suratensis] generically from E. maculatus, retaining the name of Etroplus for the former, and adopting that of Pseudetroplus for the latter [i.e. E. maculatus]". Cuvier (1830) used the spelling Etroplus coruchi on p. 491 of his text, which indicated plate 136, on which he employed the name Glyphisodon koruschi: as first reviser we here give precedence to the spelling Etroplus coruchi. Microgaster Swainson, 1839 (type species E. coruchi Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830), while a senior synonym of Pseudetroplus, is a junior homonym of Microgaster Latreille (1804: 175) in Hymenoptera. Sparks (2008) and Stiassny et al. (2001) distinguished the South Asian cichlids from their sister group, the Madagascan genus Paretroplus, by the former possessing more than a single row (vs. only a single row) of teeth in each jaw; the presence of a single lacrimal plate (lachrymal bifurcated in Paretroplus); and an asymmetrical displacement of the first anal-fin pterygiophore behind and the second in front of the haemal spine complex (vs. first anal-fin pterygiophore in front of and the second behind the haemal spine complex). While our results are consistent with this description, we note that the arrangement of anal-fin pterygiophores differs consistently between Pseudetroplus and Etroplus, with the former having the first 6 pterygiophores falling anterior to the first 3 haemal spines, whereas in the latter the first 6 pterygiophores fall anterior to the first 2 haemal spines: see Fig. 1A). Furthermore, whereas in both Pseudetroplus and Etroplus all lateral jaw teeth and the inner rows of the anterior teeth are tricuspid, the anterior jaw teeth are acuminate in adult Pseudetroplus and spatulate in adult Etroplus. Sparks (2008) noted also that the monophyly of the “ Etroplus suratensis + Etroplus canarensis clade” (i.e. Etroplus sensu stricto) was supported by the presence of a blunt snout with a steeply sloping profile in lateral view (particularly in specimens <about 75mm SL); the presence of seven to nine prominent dark lateral bands; and an unique, unreversed character: a prominent black patch on the pectoral fin near its base. These, together with the dental and osteological characters mentioned in the Diagnosis, above, serve to distinguish Pseudetroplus from Etroplus. Day (1877: 415) noted that specimens of P. maculatus from Madras (the then presidency, now part of Tamil Nadu State, in which the type locality, Tharangambadi, is located) possessed 17–18 dorsal-fin and 11–12 anal-fin spines, whereas those in southern Karnataka possessed 19–20 and 14–15 spines, respectively. Should the populations of Pseudetroplus in the eastern and western regions of the Indian peninsula prove specifically different, the name P. coruchi Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830, is available for the latter. The difference in anterior jaw dentition in Pseudetroplus and Etroplus appears related to diet, the former being piscivorous, whereas adults of the latter feed on filamentous algae, detritus, aquatic plants and diatoms (Bindu & Padmakumar, 2008).Published as part of Pethiyagoda, Rohan, Maduwage, Kalana & Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum, 2014, Validation of the South Asian cichlid genus Pseudetroplus Bleeker (Pisces: Cichlidae), pp. 595-600 in Zootaxa 3838 (5) on pages 596-599, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3838.5.9, http://zenodo.org/record/492770

Calliophis haematoetron Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, 2008, sp. nov.

&lt;i&gt;Calliophis haematoetron&lt;/i&gt; sp. nov. &lt;p&gt;(Figs. 1&ndash;3)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;i&gt;Calliophis melanurus&lt;/i&gt; (Taylor 1950: 583&ndash;585, in part, described specimens) (Bahir 1999: 22&ndash;24, in part) &lt;i&gt;Calliophis melanurus sinhaleyus&lt;/i&gt; (Deraniyagala 1951: 147&ndash;148, in part, referred specimens of new taxon, at least specimens 12&ndash;13 on table 2) (Das &amp; De Silva 2005: 57, in part)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;i&gt;Calliophis&lt;/i&gt; sp. (Somaweera 2006: 154&ndash;155)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; English name: Blood-bellied coralsnake &lt;b&gt;Holotype&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; WHT (The Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka) 1621, an adult female from Wasgomuwa National Park, [Central Province], Sri Lanka, ca. 90 m (ca. 7.648056&deg; N 80.93583&deg; E), collected 7 June 1997 by Mohomed M. Bahir and Sampath Nanayakkara (figs. 1&ndash;3).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Paratypes (2)&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; USNM (National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., United States of America) 120334 &ndash; 120335, young male and adult female, respectively, from Clodagh Estate, Rattota, Matale [Central Province], Sri Lanka, ca. 570 m (ca. 7.521667&deg; N 80.68472&deg; E), collected on 2 July 1944 by Herbert G. Deignan (fig. 2).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Diagnosis&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; A small (152&ndash;414 mm TL, young male and mature female, respectively), brownish, terrestrial coralsnake in which the tail comprises 10.5% of the TL in the known male and 8.0&ndash;8.6% in the two known females. It has no sublabial-chin-shield contact, 6 supralabials, 6 infralabials, 2 postoculars, 225&ndash;239 ventrals, a divided anal, 29&ndash;35 divided subcaudals, dorsal scale rows arranged in 13 rows along entire body, and a color pattern consisting of 13&ndash;22 lateral body blotches and 2&ndash;3 tail bands (including one band in the cloacal region).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; The new species can be distinguished from the only other known Sri Lankan &lt;i&gt;Calliophis, C&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;i&gt;melanurus,&lt;/i&gt; in having a frontal that is about equal in length or slightly shorter (vs. longer) than the interparietal suture, a first sublabial that does not touch the second pair of chin-shields (vs. broad contact with second pair of chinshields), a relatively unpigmented head (vs. capped with black from rostrum to nuchal collar), no light spots posterolateral to the parietals, numerous bands on the dorsum of the body (13&ndash;22 vs. none; excluding nuchal collar and cloacal and tail bands), a blood-red body venter (vs. orange or yellow through most of the length), and in having red pigment lateral to blue coloration under the tail (vs. no red on tail).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; The new species can be distinguished from all other coralsnakes, except &lt;i&gt;C. melanurus&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;Calliophis maculiceps&lt;/i&gt; (G&uuml;nther, 1858), by its melanized tail base internal musculature, hypaxial, and associated epimysial and perimysial tissues (i.e., asulcate layer of hemipenis, &lt;i&gt;m. propulsor&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;m. retractor penis magnus&lt;/i&gt;, and homologous muscles in females). The new species can be distinguished from all other &lt;i&gt;Calliophis&lt;/i&gt; species in nearby India, &lt;i&gt;C. beddomei&lt;/i&gt; (Smith, 1943), &lt;i&gt;C. bibroni&lt;/i&gt; (Jan, 1858), &lt;i&gt;C. melanurus&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;C. nigrescens&lt;/i&gt; (G&uuml;nther, 1862). From &lt;i&gt;C. beddomei&lt;/i&gt; it differs in having fewer supralabials (6 vs. 7), first sublabials not touching the second pair of chin-shields, a pale head with light-brown subocular and cheek blotches (vs. head with melanic color, covering the snout and continuing caudally as a narrow interparietal line joining the dark collar and as lateral stripes from above the eye to the corner of the mouth), a body pattern of complete and incomplete bands and a few lateral anterior blotches (vs. pattern of paradorsal and lateral blotches separated by faint and broken medial stripe), a colorful venter (vs. immaculate light colored, including tail), and tail bands (vs. no bands, only small blotches). From &lt;i&gt;C. bibroni&lt;/i&gt; it differs in having fewer supralabials (6 vs. 7), a light colored (vs. dark) snout, a preocular (vs. no preocular), two postoculars (vs. 1), 2 or 3 tail bands (vs. 4&ndash;6), thin dark bands on the body that are up to 2 scales wide (vs. usually 3&ndash;4 scales wide), a divided anal (vs. single), and higher ventral scute counts (males 225 vs. 219; females 232&ndash;239 vs. 222&ndash;227). It differs from &lt;i&gt;C. nigrescens&lt;/i&gt; in having a first sublabial that does not contact the second pair of chin-shields (vs. broad contact), having 6 supralabials (vs. 7), dark subcaudal markings (vs. unmarked), and a dorsal pattern of bands (vs. striped, with longitudinal blotches, or unicolored). The new species differs from &lt;i&gt;Calliophis gracilis&lt;/i&gt; Gray, 1835 in possessing fewer ventral scales (225&ndash;239 vs. 303&ndash;320), more subcaudals (29&ndash;35 vs. 21&ndash;23), 2 maxillary teeth posterior to fangs (vs. none), a dorsal pattern of narrow bands (vs. large and paired paravertebral spots and 5&ndash;7 well-defined stripes), and a venter with no bands (vs. numerous regularly spaced wide bands). From &lt;i&gt;C. maculiceps&lt;/i&gt; it can be distinguished by its high number of ventrals (225&ndash;239 vs. 169&ndash;222), more subcaudals (29&ndash;35 vs. 20&ndash;31), lack of postocular stripes, the first sublabial not touching the second pair of chin-shields (vs. broadly touching), and a frontal that is shorter or about equal to the length of the interparietal suture (vs. longer).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; From the long-glanded coralsnakes &lt;i&gt;Calliophis bivirgata&lt;/i&gt; (Boie, 1827) and &lt;i&gt;Calliophis intestinalis&lt;/i&gt; (Laurenti, 1768), previously known as members of a the genus &lt;i&gt;Maticora&lt;/i&gt; Gray, 1834 (see Slowinski &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;. 2001), the new species differs in having a venom gland that is confined to the temporal region (vs. extending behind the head), a Harderian gland with a moderately developed posterior extension (vs. enlarged posterior extension, larger than the eyeball), pterygoids of moderate size and with 4 teeth (vs. reduced in size and with 2, 1, or no teeth), and a dorsal pattern of bands (vs. stripes). Additionally, the new species can be distinguished from &lt;i&gt;C. bivirgata&lt;/i&gt; in lacking a bright red venter, head and tail dorsum, and from &lt;i&gt;C. intestinalis&lt;/i&gt; in lacking a venter without bars and a blue (vs. red) subcaudal coloration.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; From species in the genus &lt;i&gt;Sinomicrurus&lt;/i&gt; Slowinski, Boundy &amp; Lawson, 2001, i.e., &lt;i&gt;S. hatori&lt;/i&gt; (Takahashi, 1930), &lt;i&gt;S. japonicus&lt;/i&gt; (G&uuml;nther, 1868), &lt;i&gt;S. kelloggi&lt;/i&gt; (Pope, 1928), &lt;i&gt;S. macclellandi&lt;/i&gt; (Reinhardt, 1844), and &lt;i&gt;S. sauteri&lt;/i&gt; (Steindachner, 1913) (&lt;i&gt;sensu&lt;/i&gt; Slowinski &lt;i&gt;et al.&lt;/i&gt; 2001), the new taxon differs in possessing no protuberant sclerified tail tip, 6 (vs. 7) supralabials, and a Harderian gland with a moderately developed posterior extension (vs. no extension). It can further be distinguished from &lt;i&gt;S. hatori&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;S. japonicus&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;S. sauteri&lt;/i&gt; in having no pattern of stripes, and from &lt;i&gt;S. kelloggi&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;S. macclellandi&lt;/i&gt; in having no white band anterior to the nuchal band. From snakes in the genus &lt;i&gt;Hemibungarus&lt;/i&gt; Peters, 1862, namely &lt;i&gt;Hemibungarus calligaster&lt;/i&gt; (Wiegmann, 1834), that had previously been considered coralsnakes (e.g., Slowinski &lt;i&gt;et al.&lt;/i&gt; 2001), the new species differs in having 13 dorsal scale rows (vs. 15), 1+2 temporals (vs. 2+2 or 2+3), more subcaudals (32&ndash;35 vs. &lt;25), a divided anal plate (vs. single), and a Harderian gland with a moderately developed posterior extension (vs. no extension). &lt;i&gt;Hemibungarus calligaster&lt;/i&gt; is now placed in the tribe Hemibungarini, and the genus &lt;i&gt;Calliophis&lt;/i&gt; and the rest of the Asian and American coralsnakes in the tribe Calliophini, based on hemipenial and molecular data (Castoe &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;. 2007).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Etymology&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; The specific name, &lt;i&gt;haematoetron&lt;/i&gt;, is derived from the Greek adjective &lt;i&gt;haematodes&lt;/i&gt; (bloody), and the Greek noun &lt;i&gt;etron&lt;/i&gt; (belly) meaning &ldquo;bloody belly&rdquo; in reference to the bright-red venter of this &ldquo;beautiful snake&rdquo; (= &lt;i&gt;Calliophis&lt;/i&gt;).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Description of holotype and variation&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; Features of the adult female holotype are followed in parentheses by variation of the young male and the mature female paratypes, respectively. Total length 371 mm (152, 414); tail length 32 mm (16, 33); head length 6.9 mm (4.8, 9.5) from anterior edge of rostral to posterior end of mandible; head width 5.8 mm (3.1, 5.3) at broadest point; head slightly distinct from neck; snout 2.0 mm (1.5, 2.7) from front of rostral to anterior edge of eye; eye 0.3 (0.4, 0.4) times length of snout; pupil round; rostral 1.4 (1.3, 1.8) times wider than high; internasals 2.0 (1.2, 1.3) times wider than long, contacting only the nasals laterally; length of internasal suture slightly more than half diameter of eye (half in female paratype); prefrontals as wide as long, in contact laterally with nasal, preocular, and supraocular; prefrontal suture 1.4 (1.0, 1.3) times diameter of eye; frontal 1.3 (1.5, 1.5) times longer than wide; supraoculars 1.4 (1.3, 1.8) times longer than wide; parietals twice as long as wide (2.0, 1.8); parietal suture 0.6 times length of parietals, 1.2 (1.1, 0.9) times longer than frontal; 1+0 temporals and one posttemporal, shields touching parietal laterally large and elongated; temporal 1.9 (2.2, 1.9) times longer than wide; single preocular, 1.6 (1.5, 1.4) times longer than wide, triangular, with apex rostrally, located above line between center of eye and posterior border of naris; two postoculars, upper slightly wider than lower, reaching beyond upper and lower borders of eye, respectively; no loreal, preocular and nasal in contact; 6/6 supralabials, sixth largest and longest, first in contact with anterior nasal, second in contact with both nasal plates; third in contact with posterior nasal, preocular, and one sixth of orbit; fourth below orbit and contacting lower postocular, fifth in contact with lower postocular and temporal, and sixth in contact with temporal; mental 1.7 (1.9, 1.7) times as broad as long; anterior chin-shields 2.1 (2.1, 2.0) times longer than wide; posterior chin-shields 2.3 (1.9, 2.0) times longer than wide; 6/6 infralabials, first pair in contact behind mental, second small, second and third touching anterior chin-shields, fourth largest and contacting anterior and posterior chin-shields, fifth and sixth contacting sublabials; first sublabial not touching chin-shields; 2 (2, 1) gulars and 2 (3, 4) preventrals at midline between posterior chin-shields and first ventral; with few tubercles on head scales, concentrated anteriorly; dorsals in 13 rows, smooth, unreduced; apical pits absent; ventrals 239 (225, 232); anal divided; preanal single; subcaudals 32 (35, 29), paired; tail complete, tip round; no anal ridges or tubercles; male with umbilical scar on ventrals 161&ndash;163.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; Dentition of paratypes examined, characteristics of male followed by variation of female, in parentheses: maxillae bearing one fang 0.50 mm long (1.1 mm), arising below suture of supralabials 2 and 3, slanted backward; two posterior maxillary teeth on each side, first largest, 0.13 mm long (0.15 mm), close to each other (0.13, 0.10 mm), slanted backward, below suture of supralabials 4 and 5, first at 1 mm from base of fang (1.2 mm); 6/6 palatine teeth (7/6); 4/4 pterygoid teeth (6/5); 9/9 dentary teeth, decreasing in size from front to rear. Head glands visible through transparent head shields of young male and when reflecting head skin of female paratype (skin detached prior to our examination; characteristics of male followed by variation of female, in parentheses): salivary gland developed under supralabials 1&ndash;3; nasal gland occupying area below prefrontal shields (prefrontal shields, posterior nasal, and preocular); Harderian gland under anterolateral portion of parietal (and posterior supraocular and upper postocular), 0.68 mm long (1.00 mm), 0.60 mm wide (0.90 mm), triangular, apex caudal, with a moderate posterior extension; venom gland triangular (rounded posteriorly), corners at middle of fourth supralabial (middle of third supralabial), middle of sixth supralabial (tip of temporal), and middle of temporal at border with parietal, 0.78 mm wide (1.95 mm), 1.88 mm long (4.85 mm), not inflected ventrally and confined to head; infralabial gland bordering mouth under lateral tips of mental to fifth infralabial, area differentiated, darker and more granular under fourth infralabial; in male, salivary, nasal, Harderian and infralabial glands yellowish and of irregular texture (granular), venom gland whitish and smooth; &lt;i&gt;m. adductor mandibulae externus superficialis&lt;/i&gt; (AES) forming continuous loop, from upper parietal surface above Harderian gland to insertion on compound bone; in both specimens, granular glands situated under the rostral; in female, slender gland evident under lower edge of supralabials five and six.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; Hemipenes of male exposed &lt;i&gt;in situ&lt;/i&gt; but not dissected or cut, single (unbifurcated), relatively smooth, reaching level of subcaudal 10; each hemipenis and associated &lt;i&gt;m. retractor penis magnus&lt;/i&gt; covered in a melanic &lt;i&gt;epimysium&lt;/i&gt;, asulcate layer; &lt;i&gt;m. retractor penis magnus&lt;/i&gt; inserts first to vertebrae at level of subcaudal 32; &lt;i&gt;m. propulsor&lt;/i&gt; also with external melanized epymisium; no spines or papillae evident through transluscent tissue (after removing the melanic sheath); subvertebral and medial hypaxial musculature in tail with melanized internal epymisial covering; cloacal scent glands oval, ending at levels of subcaudals 3 (left) and 4 (right). In female paratype, tail subvertebral and medial hypaxial musculature and associated epimysial and perimysial connective tissues melanized; external epymisial tissue covering &lt;i&gt;m. propulsor&lt;/i&gt; and basal and medial section of &lt;i&gt;m. constrictor sacculi ani&lt;/i&gt; melanized.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Color (Fig. 1)&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; Holotype in life: Dorsum of head and body Burnt Sienna (132), turning Drab-Gray (119D) towards venter; Jet Black (89) dorsal bands and blotches, those anterior finely edged with Pale Pinkish Buff (121D); Jet Black irregular diffuse reticulation on top of head and suborbital and cheek markings; dark cheek marking covering almost all sixth supralabial and continuing through lower edge of temporal and posttemporal towards black collar; eye surrounded by dark pigment; 22 primary bands on body (crossing midline or not), about 1.5&ndash;2 scales wide; five small middorsal blotches anteriorly and small diffuse and scattered blotches posteriorly; three dorsal bands on tail; scales on second dorsolateral row with dark centers; tip of tail light colored; no spots on ventral scales; venter of body to anal plate and first row of dorsal scales on tail Gem Ruby (110) red; underside of tail True Blue (168A), except for last two subcaudals which are Gem Ruby and Pearl Gray (81); 19 subcaudals blotched with Jet Black.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Holotype in preservative: Drab Gray dorsally and ventrally; head markings Warm Sepia (221A) to Sepia (119); nuchal band and dorsal body and tail bands and blotches Sepia; faint middorsal stripe Warm Sepia; dark subcaudals Jet Black.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Male paratype in preservative similar to holotype, differs in having 13 body dorsal bands, two tail dorsal bands, a Light Drab (119C) overall coloration, Dark Drab (119B) chin, Sepia (219) bands and blotches, 12 subcaudals with dark lateral coloration (tail ventrally almost immaculate), and only faint suborbital and cheek blotches.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Female paratype in preservative more similar in color and pattern to preserved holotype than to male paratype; differs from holotype in possessing 17 body dorsal bands and two tail dorsal bands.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Habitat, distribution and natural history (Figs. 4&ndash;7)&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; The two known localities for &lt;i&gt;Calliophis haematoetron&lt;/i&gt; lie in two different types of forest. The holotype was collected at Wasgomuwa National Park, a tropical dry (mixed) evergreen forest, whereas the paratypes from Clodagh Estate, Rattota, come from an originally tropical moist semi-evergreen forest locality. Nowadays, however, no significant forest remnants of the latter formation remain (Gunatilleke &amp; Gunatilleke, 1990). The recorded altitudinal range of the new species is ca. 90&ndash; 570 m. The moment of capture and associated defensive behavior of the holotype was described by Bahir (1999): &ldquo;Running my hand under the thick layer of brown leaves on the forest floor, I uncovered a long, brown snake, almost 40 cm (rather more than a foot) long. Immediately I disturbed it, it turned the underside of its tail up displaying a stunningly spectacular blue which instinctively had me letting go. As I tried to grasp it in my hand again, it turned its belly up at me all the while keeping its head concealed and the right way up, displaying a bright red underside.&rdquo; Bahir (1999) also stated that &ldquo;it moves with incredible stealth and speed through leaf litter.&rdquo; The female paratype, collected 2 July, has yolked oviductal eggs with soft shells, two anteriorly in the left oviduct (anterior 22 mm, posterior 27 mm), and one posterior, in the right oviduct (30 mm). Egg deposition presumably happens later during the month of July.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Endoparasite (Fig. 8)&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash;&lt;/i&gt; The adult female paratype contained a single encysted nematode in the abdominal cavity; this larval individual endoparasite appears to belong to the family Spiruridae, a member of the superfamily Dracunculoidea Cameron, 1934. It possesses a long and relatively thin body, a rounded cephalic end with a cuticular shield and cephalic papillae, a reduced buccal capsule, an esophagus consisting of short muscular and long glandular parts, and an intestine that is straight and tubular (Skryabin 1984). Numerous species of Spiruridae infect the mesentery, coelomic cavity, and blood vessels of snakes. This nematode could not be assigned to a lower taxonomic rank because it is in a larval stage and diagnostic features have not yet developed. The specific identity of this Spiruridae found in &lt;i&gt;Calliophis haematoetron&lt;/i&gt; remains to be corroborated.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Relationships&lt;/b&gt; &lt;i&gt;&mdash; Calliophis haematoetron&lt;/i&gt; is probably closely related to the lowland &lt;i&gt;Calliophis&lt;/i&gt; with blue tail venters namely, &lt;i&gt;C. melanurus&lt;/i&gt; from India and Sri Lanka and &lt;i&gt;C. maculiceps&lt;/i&gt; from southern Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and northern peninsular Malaysia. These species share melanized musculature and tissues at the base of the tail, blotching in some of the subcaudals, tail bands (usually two), and a body venter with red or orange, particularly towards the anal plate.&lt;/p&gt;Published as part of &lt;i&gt;Smith, Eric N., Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum &amp; Somaweera, Ruchira, 2008, A new species of coralsnake of the genus Calliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the Central Province of Sri Lanka, pp. 19-33 in Zootaxa 1847&lt;/i&gt; on pages 21-29, DOI: &lt;a href="http://zenodo.org/record/183338"&gt;10.5281/zenodo.183338&lt;/a&gt

Pseudophilautus semiruber Annandale 1913

Pseudophilautus semiruber (Annandale, 1913) Figs 2−4 Ixalus semiruber Annandale, 1913: 305. Material examined. Mature female, 13.4 mm SVL, WHT 5831, Agra-Bopath forest, 1750 m a.s.l. (06º 50 ' 15 "N, 80 º 40 ’ 50 "E), coll. 01 August 2005, Madhava Meegaskumbura & Mohomed Bahir. Diagnosis. ‘ Ixalus ’ semiruber is assigned to the genus Pseudophilautus as it is well nested within the Sri Lankan monophyletic group (Fig. 1) of shrub frogs (Meegaskumbura et al. 2002; Bossuyt et al. 2004; Yu et al. 2010) characterized by terrestrial direct development (Bossuyt and Dubois 2000). Pseudophilautus semiruber is distinguished from all other Sri Lankan congeners by a combination of the following characters: size small, mature individuals [12.0]– 13.4 mm SVL; canthal edges rounded; tympanum distinct; vomerine ridge absent; supratympanic fold feebly defined; throat, chest, belly and underside of thigh smooth. Description. Body stout. Head laterally convex. Snout oval in dorsal and lateral view. Canthal edges rounded. Loreal region flat. Interorbital space concave. Internarial space flat. Nostrils oval. Pupil oval, horizontal. Tympanum distinct, oval, vertical, its outer rim narrow but clear. Pineal ocellus absent. Vomerine ridge absent. Tongue moderate, elongate, emarginate; no lingual papilla. Supratympanic fold feebly defined. Cephalic ridges absent. Skin on head not co-ossified. Upper arm short, lower arm slender. Fingers slender, relative length of fingers, 1 <2 <4 <3. Tips of fingers with discs bearing circum-marginal grooves, lacking lateral dermal fringes but with rudimentary webbing. Subarticular tubercles on fingers feebly defined, oval, single. Prepollex oval, feebly defined. Two palmar tubercles, oval, feebly defined. Supernumerary tubercles present on fingers and palm. Thigh, shank, toes slender. Relative length of toes, 1 <2 <5 <3 <4. Tips of toes with discs bearing circum-marginal groves. Webbing present on toes. Subarticular tubercles on toes distinct, oval, single, all present. Inner metatarsal tubercle distinct, oval. Tarsal fold absent. Outer metatarsal tubercle absent. Supernumerary tubercles present on toes and on foot. Tarsal tubercle absent. Dorsal and lateral parts of head and body, and lower part of flank, smooth. Dorso-lateral fold absent. Dorsal and lateral parts of upper arm, lower arm, thigh, shank and foot smooth. A narrow dermal ridge on mid-dorsum to back of head, then to vent. Throat, chest, belly and underside of thigh smooth. Coloration. In life, dorsal surface of head ashy brown, inter-orbital region and dorsum gray. Flank ashy brown with a few white patches outlined in red. Inguinal zone dark brown with white patches. Loreal region, tympanic region, tympanum and lips ash. Entire upper arm and proximal half of lower arm dorsally red, a black band extending antero-dorsally from base of the upper arm to proximal half of lower arm. Distal half of lower arm and fingers dorsally reddish brown, vaguely banded with black. Thigh and inner shank dorsally red with ashy-brown crossbars outlined in black. Thigh and shank ventrally light red with white patches; inguinal zone red-orange. Foot dorsally red, ventrally ashy brown. Area around vent ashy brown. Throat and margin of throat ashy brown with whitish patches; chest and belly reddish brown with white patches. Stored in 70 % ethanol, following fixing in 10 % buffered formalin, mid-dorsal area dark brown, mid-dorsal ridge pale brown. Head dorsally dark brown. Both upper and lower flanks pale brown. Inguinal zone pale brown with dark-brown patches. Loreal, typanum, tympanic region, supratympanic fold, upper and lower lips dark brown. Dorsal and lateral areas of limbs dark to pale brown. Anterior and lateral margins of lower arm and upper arm with dark-brown markings. Dorsal area of thigh, shank and foot with wide, dark cross-bars. Knees dark brown. Ventral parts of head, body, both upper and lower arms, fingers, thigh, shank, foot and toes dark brown with yellow spots and patches. Measurements of WHT 5831 (in mm): DBE, 4.0; DFE, 2.5; DL, 0.4; DW, 0.5; ED, 1.7; EN, 1.0; ES, 2.4; FEL, 5.9; FL I, 1.0; FL II, 1.2; FL III, 2.2; FL IV, 1.8; FOL, 8.6; HL, 5.4; HW, 5.5; IML, 0.7; IN, 2.0; IO, 1.8; LAL, 6.5; MBE, 1.8; MFE, 3.2; MN, 4.1; NS, 0.8; PAL, 3.4; SVL, 13.4; TBL, 6.3; TL I, 1.1; TL II, 1.3; TL III, 1.9; TL IV, 3.0; TL V, 1.8; TYD, 0.5; TYE, 0.8; UAW, 3.3; UEW, 0.9. Distribution. Pseudophilautus semiruber was originally described from a single specimen collected at Pattipola (06º 51 ' 20 "N, 80 º 49 ’ 40 "E; 1,850 m a.s.l.), about 8 km southeast of Agra-Bopath (06º 50 ' 15 "N, 80 º 40 ’ 50 "E). The species is probably restricted to the montane forests of this area (Fig. 5), and is probably under-represented in collections because its diminutive size may have led to it being overlooked as the juvenile of an arboreal Pseudophilautus and because relatively little collection effort has involved searching through leaf litter on the forest floor, which is apparently the habitat of this ‘shrub-frog’.Published as part of Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum, Bowatte, Gayan & Meegaskumbura, Suyama, 2012, Rediscovery of Pseudophilautus semiruber, a diminutive shrub frog (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka, pp. 58-68 in Zootaxa 3229 on pages 60-62, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.28034