Vertical Restraints Facilitating Horizontal Collusion: ‘Stretching’ Agreements in a Comparative Approach

This article discusses the approaches of the European Union (EU) and of the United States (US) to the notions of agreement and concerted practice applied to horizontal collusive consequences of vertical restraints. It concludes that networks of vertical restraints blur the differences between vertical and horizontal agreements; therefore, both options of attack are available for enforcers in the EU and the US context. If the analysed vertical restraints are adopted in parallel by agreement, they should be deemed illegal as long as they restrict competition producing collusive consequences. In the absence of explicit coordination to adopt the practice, I suggest first looking for a stretched concept of horizontal agreement or a broadly interpreted concept of concerted practice, including unilateral ‘communication’ that intentionally reduces uncertainty. Even when the analysed practices are adopted individually and not by all firms, they can represent a commitment to focal points, observable by market players, thus amounting to communication of intent. If that is not possible, I propose that an analysis of market power, incentives, coercion and induction should guide the finding of an illegal vertical agreement and ground the analysis of the consequences. The agreement/concerted practice path is an appropriate, feasible and coherent way to deal with vertical restraints facilitating horizontal tacit coordination, but that does not exclude alternative effective enforcement mechanisms

How Does International Economic Law Regulate the Right of Entry of Investments in Services?

This paper analyses the different ways that international law regulates the entry of foreign investments. By comparing the provisions in the regimes of trade and investment law, this paper argues that there is more liberalization in investment treaties and more investment regulation in the GATS than commonly thought. Different clauses reflect the varied techniques used to regulate the entry of foreign investments and investors in services. No matter how divergent the goals of trade and investment treaties may be, in relation to the entry of investments and investors, the interpretation of the wording of their provisions leads to particularly similar results. The concept of commercial presence in the GATS includes aspects equivalent to the so-called establishment of foreign direct investments. The interpretation of GATS rules as covering potential service suppliers bear a resemblance to concepts already present in BIT practice in relation to investors that seek to invest. Therefore, there are some signs of an increasing conceptual and substantive convergence of rules. The way the admission clauses evolved to establishment clauses in some treaties shows that the difference between them, while less radical and of limited practical relevance, may indicate a step towards a convergence with international trade law. There has also been a trend towards treaty language granting more entry rights and commitments. This was done by the progressive introduction of national treatment for entry rights, the expansion of services coverage in Mode 3 and the recognition and clarification of the rights to potential investors. The increasing number of ITs containing establishment rights is noted especially in light of the new mega-regionals. There has also been a disposition to include provisions related to the entry of investors coming from the international trade law world into the investment law arena. In sum, the substantive convergence of the rules related to entry of investments in treaty-making is becoming more evident

Motivos relacionados com a idade na participação em eventos de corrida

To determine the age-related motivations for participating in a half marathon among four age categories of respondents: up to 25 years old (n=238), 26-35 years old (n=228), 36-50 years old (n=69), and 51-70 years old (n=25) was the main goal of the study. A self-constructed questionnaire was used for the study (N=560) during the 6th Poznan Half Marathon (one of the most important running events in Poland). The basis for the development of the author’s questionnaire survey of motives for participation in running events was the division of Freyer and Gross (2002). The research instrument was validated before the examined event (during the 5th Poznan Half Marathon). The main findings of the presented research were strictly connected with the motive to maintain physical condition and health. This motive was important for all the surveyed age groups of runners and reported by 82.1% (460) of the respondents. It was also the most important for the oldest age group: runners aged 51-70 (96% reported this motivation as being the most important). The most significant difference between young and older runners is that young people are more often focused on results, while older people are more focused on contact with other people, with social aspects being more important to them. They also pay more attention to the attractiveness of the city in which they run. But the young think about achieving a sports result, experiencing intense emotions, and achieving recognition in the eyes of others. References 1 Tschopp M, Brunner F. Diseases and overuse injuries of the lower extremities in long distance runners. Z Rheumatol. 2017; 76(5): 443–450. doi:10.1007/s00393-017-0276-6. PMID: 28236094. 2 Trappe S. Marathon runners: how do they age? Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5): 302-305. doi:10.2165/00007256-200737040-00008. PMID: 17465594. 3 Dróżdż R., Olszewski-Strzyżowski J. WpÅ‚yw aktywnoÅ›ci fizycznej na styl życia maratoÅ„czyków. In: ZowiÅ‚o M, Kosiewicz J, editors. Sport i turystyka w zwierciadle wartoÅ›ci spoÅ‚ecznych. Krakow: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego; 2015. p. 469-486. 4 Scheerder J, Breedveld K, Borgers J. Who is doing a run with the running boom? The growth and governance of one of Europe’s most popular sport activities. In: Scheerder J, Breedveld K, editors. Running across Europe: the rise and size of one of the largest sport markets. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan; 2015. p. 1-27. 5 StempieÅ„ JR. “Must be healthy, must be sporty†– experiences of Poland and selected European countries: the case of popularity of running. In: Sawicki B, editor. Promotion of healthy lifestyle in European countries. Lublin: Katedra Turystyki i Rekreacji Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie; 2015a. p. 162-174. 6 Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age. 2012; 34(3): 773-781. doi: 10.1007/s11357-011-9271-z. PMID: 21617894. 7 Tanaka H, Seals DR. Endurance exercise performance in masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. J Physiol (Lond). 2008; 586: 55-63. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.141879. 8 Renfree A, St Clair Gibson A. Influence of different performance levels on pacing strategy during the Women’s World Championship marathon race. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013; 8(3): 279-285. PMID: 23006811. 9 Angus SD. Did recent world record marathon runners employ optimal pacing strategies? J Sports Sci. 2014; 32(1): 31-45. doi:10.1080/02640414.2013.803592, PMID: 23879745.  10 Skorski S, Abbiss CR. The manipulation of pace within endurance sport. Front Physiol. 2017; 8: 102. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00102, PMID: 28289392. 11 Sjödin B, Svedenhag J. Applied physiology of marathon running. Sports Med. 1985; 2: 83-99. doi:10.2165/00007256-198502020-00002, PMID: 3890068. 12 Leyk D, Erley O, Gorges W, Ridder D, Ruther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Piekarski C, Erren T. Performance, training and lifestyle parameters of marathon runners aged 20-80 years: results of the PACE study. Int J Sports Med. 2009; 30(5): 360-365. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1105935. PMID: 19277939. 13 Leyk D, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Witzki A, et al. Physical performance in middle age and old age: good news for our sedentary and aging society. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010; 107: 809-16. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0809, PMID: 21151416. 14 Lehto N. Effects of age on marathon finishing time among male amateur runners in Stockholm Marathon 1979-2014. J Sport Health Sci. 2016; 5(3): 349-354. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2015.01.008. 15 Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ. Master’s performance in the New York City Marathon 1983-1999. Br J Sports Med. 2004; 38: 408-412. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2002.003566, PMID: 15273172. 16 Tanaka H, Seals DR. Invited review: dynamic exercise performance in masters athletes: insight into the effects of primary human aging on physiological functional capacity. J Appl Physiol. 2003;95: 2152-2162. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00320.2003, PMID: 14555676. 17 Leyk D, Erley O, Ridder D, Leurs M, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, et al. Age-related changes in marathon and half-marathon performances. Int J Sports Med. 2007; 28: 513-517. PMID: 17600902. 18 Wright VJ, Perricelli BC. Age-related rates of decline in performance among elite senior athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2008; 36: 443-450. doi:10.1177/0363546507309673 PMID: 18055922. 19 Baker AB, Tang YQ, Turner MJ. Percentage decline in masters super athlete track and ï¬eld performance with aging. Exp Aging Res. 2003; 29: 47-65 doi:10.1080/03610730303706, PMID: 12735081. 20 Lara B, Salinero JJ, Del Coso J. The relationship between age and running time in elite marathoners is U-shaped Age (Dordr). 2014; 36(2): 1003–1008. doi:10.1007/s11357-013-9614-z, PMID: 24407890. 21 Summers JJ, Sargent GI, Levey AJ, Murray, KD. Middle-aged, non-elite marathon runners: a profile. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1982; 1. doi:10.2466/pms.1982.54.3.963 22 StempieÅ„ JR. Polska moda na bieganie w Å›wietle analizy kohort. Perspektywa socjologiczna. In: ZowisÅ‚o M, Kosiewicz J, editors. Sport i turystyka w zwierciadle wartoÅ›ci spoÅ‚ecznych. Kraków: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego; 2015. p. 450-460. 23 WaÅ›kowski Z. Profil polskiego biegacza. Raport z badaÅ„, 2014 [acesso 01 mar. 2018]. Disponível em: http://sm.nauka.ehost.pl/pdf/ Biegacze.pdf 24 WaÅ›kowski Z. Rynek biegowy w Polsce. In: WaÅ›kowski Z, editor. Marketing imprez biegowych. PoznaÅ„: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe; 2014. p. 9-17. 25 StempieÅ„ JR. , Ladies and gentlemen… On your marks, get set, go! About leisure time sport and the popularity of running among men and women, Acta Universitatis Lodziensis, Folia Sociologica. 2015c; 4:185–209. 26 Ogles, BM., Masters, KS. Older vs. Younger Adult Male Marathon Runners: Participative Motives and Training Habits, Journal of Sport Behavior. 2000; 23(2): 130-143. 27 Freyer, W.; Gross, S. (Eds.) Tourismus und Sport-Events; FIT Forschungsinstitut für Tourismus: Dresden, Germany; 2002. 28 Poczta, J.; Malchrowicz-MoÅ›ko, E. Modern Running Events in Sustainable Development—More than Just Taking Care of Health and Physical Condition (Poznan Half Marathon Case Study). Sustainability 2018; 10: 2145. doi:10.3390/su10072145. 29 Malchrowicz-MoÅ›ko, E.; Poczta, J. Running as a Form of Therapy Socio-Psychological Functions of Mass Running Events for Men and Women. Int. J. Environ Res. Public Health. 2018; 15: 2262. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15102262. 30 Stebbins RA. Cultural tourism as serious leisure. Annals of Tourism Research 1996;23(4): 948-950. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(96)00028-X. 31 Vehmas H. Rationale of active leisure: understanding sport, tourism and leisure choices in the Finnish society. Ido Movement for Culture. 2010; 10: 121-127. 32 Zuckerman MR. Sensation seeking motive. In: Maher BH, editor. Progress in experimental personality research. Vol. 7. New York: Academic Press; 1974. p. 79-148. 33 Eliasz, A. Ecological psychology. Warsaw: Publisher of the Institute of Psychology of the Polish Academy of Sciences; 1993. 34 Strelau J. Psychology of temperament. Warsaw: PWN; 2009. 35 Walczak M., Tomczak M. The structure of psychological determinants of selected aspects of physical activity in the light of the theory of self-determination. In: Sport and recreation and the challenge of modern civilization, Scientific Notebooks of Szczecin University, no. 689, Economic Issues Services, no. 78. Szczecin: Uniwersytet SzczeciÅ„ski; 2011. Disponível em: http://www.wzieu.pl/zn/689/ZN_689.pdf. 36 National Census of Runners/Narodowy Spis Biegaczy 2014. 37 Nowak P, Sport rekreacyjny na pograniczu wartoÅ›ci prozdrowotnych, „Zdrowie – Kultura Zdrowotna – Edukacjaâ€. 2010; 6: 129–134.Determinar las motivaciones relacionadas con la edad para participar de media maratón en cuatro categorías de edad de los entrevistados: hasta 25 años (n = 238), 26-35 años (n = 228), 36-50 años (n = 69) y 51- 70 años (n = 25) fue el principal objetivo del estudio. Un cuestionario autoconstruido fue utilizado para el estudio (N = 560) durante la Sexta Maratón de Poznan (uno de los más importantes eventos de carrera en Polonia). La base para el desarrollo del cuestionario sobre los motivos para la participación en eventos de carrera fue la división de Freyer y Gross (2002). El instrumento de investigación fue validado antes del evento examinado (durante la 5ª Media Maratón de Poznan). Los principales hallazgos de esta investigación fueron estrictamente relacionados con el motivo para mantener la condición física y la salud. El motivo fue importante para todos los grupos de edad investigados y reportados por el 82,1% (460) de los entrevistados. Fue también el más importante para el grupo de edad más viejo: corredores con edades entre 51 y 70 años (96% relataron esa motivación como la más importante). La diferencia más significativa entre corredores jóvenes y mayores es que los jóvenes se centran más en resultados, mientras que los más viejos están más enfocados en el contacto con otras personas, siendo los aspectos sociales más importantes para ellos. También prestan más atención al atractivo de la ciudad en la que corren. Mientras los jóvenes piensan en alcanzar un resultado deportivo, sentir emociones intensas y conquistar reconocimiento a los ojos de los demás. References 1 Tschopp M, Brunner F. Diseases and overuse injuries of the lower extremities in long distance runners. Z Rheumatol. 2017; 76(5): 443–450. doi:10.1007/s00393-017-0276-6. PMID: 28236094. 2 Trappe S. Marathon runners: how do they age? Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5): 302-305. doi:10.2165/00007256-200737040-00008. PMID: 17465594. 3 Dróżdż R., Olszewski-Strzyżowski J. WpÅ‚yw aktywnoÅ›ci fizycznej na styl życia maratoÅ„czyków. In: ZowiÅ‚o M, Kosiewicz J, editors. Sport i turystyka w zwierciadle wartoÅ›ci spoÅ‚ecznych. Krakow: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego; 2015. p. 469-486. 4 Scheerder J, Breedveld K, Borgers J. Who is doing a run with the running boom? The growth and governance of one of Europe’s most popular sport activities. In: Scheerder J, Breedveld K, editors. Running across Europe: the rise and size of one of the largest sport markets. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan; 2015. p. 1-27. 5 StempieÅ„ JR. “Must be healthy, must be sporty†– experiences of Poland and selected European countries: the case of popularity of running. In: Sawicki B, editor. Promotion of healthy lifestyle in European countries. Lublin: Katedra Turystyki i Rekreacji Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie; 2015a. p. 162-174. 6 Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age. 2012; 34(3): 773-781. doi: 10.1007/s11357-011-9271-z. PMID: 21617894. 7 Tanaka H, Seals DR. Endurance exercise performance in masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. J Physiol (Lond). 2008; 586: 55-63. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.141879. 8 Renfree A, St Clair Gibson A. Influence of different performance levels on pacing strategy during the Women’s World Championship marathon race. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013; 8(3): 279-285. PMID: 23006811. 9 Angus SD. Did recent world record marathon runners employ optimal pacing strategies? J Sports Sci. 2014; 32(1): 31-45. doi:10.1080/02640414.2013.803592, PMID: 23879745.  10 Skorski S, Abbiss CR. The manipulation of pace within endurance sport. Front Physiol. 2017; 8: 102. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00102, PMID: 28289392. 11 Sjödin B, Svedenhag J. Applied physiology of marathon running. Sports Med. 1985; 2: 83-99. doi:10.2165/00007256-198502020-00002, PMID: 3890068. 12 Leyk D, Erley O, Gorges W, Ridder D, Ruther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Piekarski C, Erren T. Performance, training and lifestyle parameters of marathon runners aged 20-80 years: results of the PACE study. Int J Sports Med. 2009; 30(5): 360-365. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1105935. PMID: 19277939. 13 Leyk D, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Witzki A, et al. Physical performance in middle age and old age: good news for our sedentary and aging society. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010; 107: 809-16. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0809, PMID: 21151416. 14 Lehto N. Effects of age on marathon finishing time among male amateur runners in Stockholm Marathon 1979-2014. J Sport Health Sci. 2016; 5(3): 349-354. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2015.01.008. 15 Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ. Master’s performance in the New York City Marathon 1983-1999. Br J Sports Med. 2004; 38: 408-412. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2002.003566, PMID: 15273172. 16 Tanaka H, Seals DR. Invited review: dynamic exercise performance in masters athletes: insight into the effects of primary human aging on physiological functional capacity. J Appl Physiol. 2003;95: 2152-2162. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00320.2003, PMID: 14555676. 17 Leyk D, Erley O, Ridder D, Leurs M, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, et al. Age-related changes in marathon and half-marathon performances. Int J Sports Med. 2007; 28: 513-517. PMID: 17600902. 18 Wright VJ, Perricelli BC. Age-related rates of decline in performance among elite senior athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2008; 36: 443-450. doi:10.1177/0363546507309673 PMID: 18055922. 19 Baker AB, Tang YQ, Turner MJ. Percentage decline in masters super athlete track and ï¬eld performance with aging. Exp Aging Res. 2003; 29: 47-65 doi:10.1080/03610730303706, PMID: 12735081. 20 Lara B, Salinero JJ, Del Coso J. The relationship between age and running time in elite marathoners is U-shaped Age (Dordr). 2014; 36(2): 1003–1008. doi:10.1007/s11357-013-9614-z, PMID: 24407890. 21 Summers JJ, Sargent GI, Levey AJ, Murray, KD. Middle-aged, non-elite marathon runners: a profile. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1982; 1. doi:10.2466/pms.1982.54.3.963 22 StempieÅ„ JR. Polska moda na bieganie w Å›wietle analizy kohort. Perspektywa socjologiczna. In: ZowisÅ‚o M, Kosiewicz J, editors. Sport i turystyka w zwierciadle wartoÅ›ci spoÅ‚ecznych. Kraków: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego; 2015. p. 450-460. 23 WaÅ›kowski Z. Profil polskiego biegacza. Raport z badaÅ„, 2014 [acesso 01 mar. 2018]. Disponível em: http://sm.nauka.ehost.pl/pdf/ Biegacze.pdf 24 WaÅ›kowski Z. Rynek biegowy w Polsce. In: WaÅ›kowski Z, editor. Marketing imprez biegowych. PoznaÅ„: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe; 2014. p. 9-17. 25 StempieÅ„ JR. , Ladies and gentlemen… On your marks, get set, go! About leisure time sport and the popularity of running among men and women, Acta Universitatis Lodziensis, Folia Sociologica. 2015c; 4:185–209. 26 Ogles, BM., Masters, KS. Older vs. Younger Adult Male Marathon Runners: Participative Motives and Training Habits, Journal of Sport Behavior. 2000; 23(2): 130-143. 27 Freyer, W.; Gross, S. (Eds.) Tourismus und Sport-Events; FIT Forschungsinstitut für Tourismus: Dresden, Germany; 2002. 28 Poczta, J.; Malchrowicz-MoÅ›ko, E. Modern Running Events in Sustainable Development—More than Just Taking Care of Health and Physical Condition (Poznan Half Marathon Case Study). Sustainability 2018; 10: 2145. doi:10.3390/su10072145. 29 Malchrowicz-MoÅ›ko, E.; Poczta, J. Running as a Form of Therapy Socio-Psychological Functions of Mass Running Events for Men and Women. Int. J. Environ Res. Public Health. 2018; 15: 2262. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15102262. 30 Stebbins RA. Cultural tourism as serious leisure. Annals of Tourism Research 1996;23(4): 948-950. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(96)00028-X. 31 Vehmas H. Rationale of active leisure: understanding sport, tourism and leisure choices in the Finnish society. Ido Movement for Culture. 2010; 10: 121-127. 32 Zuckerman MR. Sensation seeking motive. In: Maher BH, editor. Progress in experimental personality research. Vol. 7. New York: Academic Press; 1974. p. 79-148. 33 Eliasz, A. Ecological psychology. Warsaw: Publisher of the Institute of Psychology of the Polish Academy of Sciences; 1993. 34 Strelau J. Psychology of temperament. Warsaw: PWN; 2009. 35 Walczak M., Tomczak M. The structure of psychological determinants of selected aspects of physical activity in the light of the theory of self-determination. In: Sport and recreation and the challenge of modern civilization, Scientific Notebooks of Szczecin University, no. 689, Economic Issues Services, no. 78. Szczecin: Uniwersytet SzczeciÅ„ski; 2011. Disponível em: http://www.wzieu.pl/zn/689/ZN_689.pdf. 36 National Census of Runners/Narodowy Spis Biegaczy 2014. 37 Nowak P, Sport rekreacyjny na pograniczu wartoÅ›ci prozdrowotnych, „Zdrowie – Kultura Zdrowotna – Edukacjaâ€. 2010; 6: 129–134.Determinar as motivações relacionadas à idade para participar de meia maratona em quatro categorias de idade dos entrevistados: até 25 anos (n=238), 26-35 anos (n=228), 36-50 anos (n=69) e 51-70 anos (n=25) foi o principal objetivo do estudo. Um questionário autoconstruído foi utilizado para o estudo (N=560) durante a 6ª Meia Maratona de Poznan (um dos mais importantes eventos de corrida na Polônia). A base para o desenvolvimento do questionário sobre os motivos para a participação em eventos de corrida foi a divisão de Freyer e Gross (2002). O instrumento de pesquisa foi validado antes do evento examinado (durante a 5ª Meia Maratona de Poznan). Os principais achados dessa pesquisa foram estritamente relacionados com o motivo para manter a condição física e a saúde. O motivo foi importante para todos os grupos etários pesquisados ​​e relatados por 82,1% (460) dos entrevistados. Foi também o mais importante para a faixa etária mais idosa: corredores com idades entre 51 e 70 anos (96% relataram essa motivação como sendo a mais importante). A diferença mais significativa entre corredores jovens e mais velhos é que os jovens são mais frequentemente focados em resultados, enquanto os mais velhos são mais focados no contato com outras pessoas, sendo os aspectos sociais mais importantes para eles. Eles também prestam mais atenção à atratividade da cidade em que eles correm. Enquanto os jovens pensam em alcançar um resultado esportivo, sentir emoções intensas e conquistar reconhecimento aos olhos dos outros. References 1 Tschopp M, Brunner F. Diseases and overuse injuries of the lower extremities in long distance runners. Z Rheumatol. 2017; 76(5): 443–450. doi:10.1007/s00393-017-0276-6. PMID: 28236094. 2 Trappe S. Marathon runners: how do they age? Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5): 302-305. doi:10.2165/00007256-200737040-00008. PMID: 17465594. 3 Dróżdż R., Olszewski-Strzyżowski J. WpÅ‚yw aktywnoÅ›ci fizycznej na styl życia maratoÅ„czyków. In: ZowiÅ‚o M, Kosiewicz J, editors. Sport i turystyka w zwierciadle wartoÅ›ci spoÅ‚ecznych. Krakow: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego; 2015. p. 469-486. 4 Scheerder J, Breedveld K, Borgers J. Who is doing a run with the running boom? The growth and governance of one of Europe’s most popular sport activities. In: Scheerder J, Breedveld K, editors. Running across Europe: the rise and size of one of the largest sport markets. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan; 2015. p. 1-27. 5 StempieÅ„ JR. “Must be healthy, must be sporty†– experiences of Poland and selected European countries: the case of popularity of running. In: Sawicki B, editor. Promotion of healthy lifestyle in European countries. Lublin: Katedra Turystyki i Rekreacji Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie; 2015a. p. 162-174. 6 Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age. 2012; 34(3): 773-781. doi: 10.1007/s11357-011-9271-z. PMID: 21617894. 7 Tanaka H, Seals DR. Endurance exercise performance in masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. J Physiol (Lond). 2008; 586: 55-63. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.141879. 8 Renfree A, St Clair Gibson A. Influence of different performance levels on pacing strategy during the Women’s World Championship marathon race. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013; 8(3): 279-285. PMID: 23006811. 9 Angus SD. Did recent world record marathon runners employ optimal pacing strategies? J Sports Sci. 2014; 32(1): 31-45. doi:10.1080/02640414.2013.803592, PMID: 23879745.  10 Skorski S, Abbiss CR. The manipulation of pace within endurance sport. Front Physiol. 2017; 8: 102. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00102, PMID: 28289392. 11 Sjödin B, Svedenhag J. Applied physiology of marathon running. Sports Med. 1985; 2: 83-99. doi:10.2165/00007256-198502020-00002, PMID: 3890068. 12 Leyk D, Erley O, Gorges W, Ridder D, Ruther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Piekarski C, Erren T. Performance, training and lifestyle parameters of marathon runners aged 20-80 years: results of the PACE study. Int J Sports Med. 2009; 30(5): 360-365. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1105935. PMID: 19277939. 13 Leyk D, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Witzki A, et al. Physical performance in middle age and old age: good news for our seden

Hydropower Scheduling Toolchains:Comparing Experiences in Brazil, Norway,and USA and Implications for Synergistic Research

While hydropower scheduling is a well-defined problem, there are institutional differences that need to be identified to promoteconstructive and synergistic research. We study how established toolchains of computer models are organized to assist operational hydro-power scheduling in Brazil, Norway, and the United States’Colorado River System (CRS). These three systems have vast hydropowerresources, with numerous, geographically widespread, and complex reservoir systems. Although the underlying objective of hydropowerscheduling is essentially the same, the systems are operated in different market contexts and with different alternative uses of water, where thestakeholders’objectives clearly differ. This in turn leads to different approaches when it comes to the scope, organization, and use of modelsfor operational hydropower scheduling and the information flow between the models. We describe these hydropower scheduling toolchains,identify the similarities and differences, and shed light on the original ideas that motivated their creation. We then discuss the need to improveand extend the current toolchains and the opportunities to synergistic research that embrace those contextual differences.Hydropower Scheduling Toolchains:Comparing Experiences in Brazil, Norway,and USA and Implications for Synergistic ResearchacceptedVersio

Modelling the shapes of the largest gravitationally bound objects

We combine the physics of the ellipsoidal collapse model with the excursion set theory to study the shapes of dark matter halos. In particular, we develop an analytic approximation to the nonlinear evolution that is more accurate than the Zeldovich approximation; we introduce a planar representation of halo axis ratios, which allows a concise and intuitive description of the dynamics of collapsing regions and allows one to relate the final shape of a halo to its initial shape; we provide simple physical explanations for some empirical fitting formulae obtained from numerical studies. Comparison with simulations is challenging, as there is no agreement about how to define a non-spherical gravitationally bound object. Nevertheless, we find that our model matches the conditional minor-to-intermediate axis ratio distribution rather well, although it disagrees with the numerical results in reproducing the minor-to-major axis ratio distribution. In particular, the mass dependence of the minor-to-major axis distribution appears to be the opposite to what is found in many previous numerical studies, where low-mass halos are preferentially more spherical than high-mass halos. In our model, the high-mass halos are predicted to be more spherical, consistent with results based on a more recent and elaborate halo finding algorithm, and with observations of the mass dependence of the shapes of early-type galaxies. We suggest that some of the disagreement with some previous numerical studies may be alleviated if we consider only isolated halos.Comment: 15 pages, 8 figures. New appendix added, extended discussion. Matches version accepted by MNRA

Multimodality of rich clusters from the SDSS DR8 within the supercluster-void network

We study the relations between the multimodality of galaxy clusters drawn from the SDSS DR8 and the environment where they reside. As cluster environment we consider the global luminosity density field, supercluster membership, and supercluster morphology. We use 3D normal mixture modelling, the Dressler-Shectman test, and the peculiar velocity of cluster main galaxies as signatures of multimodality of clusters. We calculate the luminosity density field to study the environmental densities around clusters, and to find superclusters where clusters reside. We determine the morphology of superclusters with the Minkowski functionals and compare the properties of clusters in superclusters of different morphology. We apply principal component analysis to study the relations between the multimodality parametres of clusters and their environment simultaneously. We find that multimodal clusters reside in higher density environment than unimodal clusters. Clusters in superclusters have higher probability to have substructure than isolated clusters. The superclusters can be divided into two main morphological types, spiders and filaments. Clusters in superclusters of spider morphology have higher probabilities to have substructure and larger peculiar velocities of their main galaxies than clusters in superclusters of filament morphology. The most luminous clusters are located in the high-density cores of rich superclusters. Five of seven most luminous clusters, and five of seven most multimodal clusters reside in spider-type superclusters; four of seven most unimodal clusters reside in filament-type superclusters. Our study shows the importance of the role of superclusters as high density environment which affects the properties of galaxy systems in them.Comment: 16 pages, 12 figures, 2 online tables, accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysic