Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.

The learned helplessness hypothesis is criticized and reformulated. The old hypothesis, when applied to learned helplessness in humans, has two major problems: (a) It does not distinguish between cases in which outcomes are uncontrollable for all people and cases in which they are uncontrollable onlyfor some people (univervsal vs. personal helplessness), and (b) it does not explain when helplessness is general and when specific, or when chronic and when acute. A reformulation based on a revision of attribution theory is proposed to resolve these inadequacies. According to the reformulation, once people perceive noncontingency, they attribute their helplessness to a cause. This cause can be stable or unstable, global or specific, and internal or external. The attribution chosen influences whether expectation of future helplessness will be chronic or acute, broad or narrow, and whether helplessness will lower self-esteem or not. The implications of this reformulation of human helplessness for the learned helplessness model of depression are outlined

Teoría de la depresión por desesperanza : aportaciones recientes

La teoría de desesperanza de la depresión o teoría de la depresión por desesperanza, propuesta por Abramson, Metalsky y Alloy (Psychological Review, 96, 358-372,1989), establece que las personas que poseen estilos inferenclales negativos (l.e., vulnerabilidad cognitiva) son más propensas a desarrollar síntomas depresivos (más específicamente los síntomas del subtipo "depresión por desesperanza') cuando experimentan sucesos vitales negativos que las personas que no poseen dichos estilos. En el presente artículo resumimos nuevos hallazgos empíricos que apoyan dicha teoría, principalmente los provenientes del Temple-Wisconsln Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression Project, un proyecto en el que se utiliza prospectivamente la estrategia de alto riesgo conductual con la que se prueba la hipótesis de vulnerabilidad y de mediación causal de la teoría de desesperanza de la depresión. En concreto analizamos (1) resultados retrospectivos y prospectivos referidos al Eje I (trastornos depresivos, incluido el subtipo de depresión por desesperanza), (2) la vulnerabilidad cognitiva y los trastornos de personalidad concurrentes (Eje II), (3) los mecanismos mediante los cuales los estilos cognitivos incrementan la vulnerabilidad para la depresión, y (4) el maltrato infantil como posible factor causal de la vulnerabilidad cognitiva para la depresión. También se discute la evidencia relevante para la integración de la teoría de la desesperanza y la vulnerabilidad biológica para la depresión. Finalmente, se ponen de relieve posibles implicaciones para la prevención y tratamiento de la depresión

Structural invariance of General Behavior Inventory (GBI) scores in Black and White young adults.

In the United States, Black and White individuals show discrepant rates of diagnosis of bipolar disorder versus schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder, as well as disparate access to and utilization of treatment for these disorders (e.g., Alegria, Chatterji et al., 2008; Chrishon et al., 2012). Such diagnostic discrepancies might stem from racially-related cognitive biases in clinical judgment or from racial biases in measurements of bipolar disorder. The General Behavior Inventory (GBI) is among the most well-validated and widely used measures of bipolar mood symptoms, but the psychometric properties of the GBI have been examined primarily in predominantly White samples. This study used multi-group confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to examine the invariance of GBI scores across racial groups with a non-clinical sample. Fit was acceptable for tests of configural invariance, equal factor loadings, and equal intercepts, but not invariance of residuals. Findings indicate that GBI scores provide functionally invariant measurement of mood symptoms in both Black and White samples. The use of GBI scores may contribute consistent information to clinical assessments and could potentially reduce diagnostic discrepancies and associated differences in access to and utilization of mental health services

Differentiating bipolar disorder from unipolar depression and ADHD: The utility of the General Behavior Inventory.

Adolescence and early adulthood are the peak ages for the onset of unipolar and bipolar mood disorders. Moreover, for most individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), symptoms and impairment begin in childhood but persist well into adolescence and adulthood (e.g., Barkley, 2010). Thus, adolescence and early adulthood represent a developmental window wherein individuals can be affected by mood disorders, ADHD, or both. Because treatment protocols for unipolar depression (UPD), bipolar disorder (BD), and ADHD are quite different, it is crucial that assessment instruments used among adolescents and young adults differentiate between these disorders. The primary objectives of this study were to evaluate the predictive and diagnostic validity of General Behavior Inventory (GBI; Depue, Krauss, Spoont, & Arbisi, 1989) scores in discriminating BD from UPD and ADHD. Participants were drawn from adolescent (n=361) and young adult (n=614) samples. Based on findings from logistic regression and receiver operating characteristics analyses, the diagnostic efficiency of the GBI scales range from fair (discriminating UPD from BD) to good (discriminating BD participants from nonclinical controls). Multilevel diagnostic likelihood ratios are also provided to facilitate individual decision making

Extreme Cognitions in Bipolar Spectrum Disorders: Associations With Personality Disorder Characteristics and Risk for Episode Recurrence

Bipolar spectrum disorders (BSDs) are often characterized by cognitive inflexibility and affective extremities, including “extreme” or polarized thoughts and beliefs, which have been shown to predict a more severe course of illness. However, little research has evaluated factors that may be associated with extreme cognitions, such as personality disorders, which are often characterized by extreme, inflexible beliefs and also are associated with poor illness course in BSDs. The present study evaluated associations between BSDs, personality disorder characteristics, and extreme cognitions (polarized responses made on measures of attributional style and dysfunctional attitudes), as well as links between extreme cognitions and the occurrence of mood episodes, among euthymic young adults with BSDs (n = 83) and demographically-matched healthy controls (n = 89) followed prospectively for three years. The relationship between personality disorder characteristics and negative and positive extreme cognitions was stronger among BSD participants than among healthy controls, even after statistically accounting for general cognitive styles. Furthermore, extreme negative cognitions predicted the prospective onset of major depressive and hypomanic episodes. These results suggest that extreme cognitive styles are most common in individuals with BSDs and personality disorder characteristics, and they provide further evidence that extreme negative cognitions may confer risk for mood dysregulation

The interaction of affective states and cognitive vulnerabilities in the prediction of non-suicidal self-injury

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a serious public health concern and remains poorly understood. This study sought to identify both cognitive and affective vulnerabilities to NSSI and examine their interaction in the prediction of NSSI. A series of regressions indicated that low levels of positive affect moderated the relationships between self-criticism and brooding and NSSI. The associations of self-criticism and brooding with greater frequency of NSSI were attenuated by higher levels of positive affect. The interaction of cognitive and affective vulnerabilities is discussed within the context of current NSSI theory