Uma crítica das qualificações: Políticas, práticas e assuntos técnicos

In recent years there was been a raft of criticisms of the way that grades (or marks) are assigned to students. The purpose of this paper is to examine the strengths and weaknesses of grading systems and grading practices, drawing upon both historical and contemporary research and writing. Five questions are used to frame the review and organize the paper. They are: (1) Why do we grade students? (2) What do grades mean? (3) How reliable are students’ grades? (4) How valid are students’ grades? and (5) What are the consequences of grading students?  The results suggest that (1) The are several purposes for grading students; the way that grades are assigned and reported should be consistent with the specified purpose. (2) Grades mean different things to different people (including the teachers who assign them). (3) Grades on a single task (e.g., a test or project, a homework assignment) are quite unreliable, whereas cumulative grades (that is, those based on several data sources) are reasonably reliable. (4) The validity of grades on a single task is virtually impossible to determine; however, the evidence suggests that cumulative grades are reasonably valid. (5) Grades influence a variety of student affective characteristics (e.g., self-esteem). However, their influence is no greater, nor less than, a host of other school-related factors.En años recientes ha habido una racha de críticas a la manera como las calificaciones o grados se asignan a los estudiantes. El propósito de este artículo es examinar las fortalezas y las debilidades de los sistemas y las prácticas de calificación, con base en texto e investigaciones históricas y contemporáneas. Se aprovechan cinco preguntas para marcar los límites y organizar el texto. 1) Por qué calificamos a los estudiantes. 2) Qué significan las calificaciones. 3) Qué tan confiables son las calificaciones de los estudiantes. 4) Qué tan válidas son. y 5) Cuáles son las consecuencias de calificar a los estudiantes. Los resultados sugieren que: 1) Hay diferentes propósitos para calificar a los estudiantes; la manera como se asignan y se reportan debiera ser consistente con el propósito especifico. 2) Las calificaciones tienen diferentes significados para diferentes personas, (incluyendo a los profesores que las asignan). 3) Las calificaciones asignadas a una sola tarea (esto es una prueba, un proyecto, una tareas) son muy poco confiables, mientras que las calificaciones acumuladas (esto es las que se basan en diferentes fuentes) son razonablemente confiables. 4) La validez de las calificaciones asignadas a una sola tarea es casi imposible de determinar, en cambio la evidencia sugiere que las calificaciones acumuladas son razonablemente válidas. 5) Las calificaciones influyen sobre las características afectivas de los estudiantes (por ejemplo, la autoestima), sin embargo su influencia no es mayor ni menor que un montón de otros factores escolares relacionados.Nos últimos anos, tem havido uma série de críticas sobre como as notas ou notas são atribuídas aos alunos. O objetivo deste artigo é examinar os pontos fortes e fracos dos sistemas e práticas de qualificação, baseados em textos e pesquisas históricas e contemporâneas. Cinco perguntas são usadas para marcar os limites e organizar o texto. 1) Por que classificamos os alunos? 2) O que as qualificações significam 3) Quão confiáveis são as notas do aluno. 4) Qual a sua validade e 5) Quais são as consequências de qualificar os alunos? Os resultados sugerem que: 1) Existem diferentes propósitos para qualificar os alunos; a maneira como são designados e relatados deve ser consistente com o propósito específico. 2) As notas têm significados diferentes para pessoas diferentes (incluindo os professores que as designam). 3) As classificações atribuídas a uma única tarefa (isto é, um teste, um projeto, uma tarefa) são pouco confiáveis, enquanto as qualificações acumuladas (isto é, aquelas baseadas em fontes diferentes) são razoavelmente confiáveis. 4) A validade das avaliações atribuídas a uma única tarefa é quase impossível de determinar, enquanto as evidências sugerem que as qualificações acumuladas são razoavelmente válidas. 5) As notas influenciam as características afetivas dos alunos (por exemplo, autoestima), porém sua influência não é maior ou menor do que muitos outros fatores relacionados à escola

Questões-chave para pensamento e ação

In this summary article, six recommendations for the design, implementation, and interpretation of educational evaluations are presented and discussed. These recommendations are based on common “threads” that run through most, if not all, of the papers included in this special issue. The recommendations concern (1) the need for awareness of the political, societal, cultural, and economic factors affecting evaluation studies; (2) the importance of knowing and understanding the stakeholder groups; (3) the need to ensure that the purposes of the evaluation are explicit and clear; (4) the importance of allowing flexibility in the implementation of the evaluation when needed to account for issues that arise during the evaluation process; (5) the need to ensure that the data gathered as part of the evaluation process are of the highest technical quality possible; and the (6) importance of ensuring that the results of the evaluation are interpreted correctly and well understood by stakeholders and decision makers.En este capítulo final se ofrecen y discuten seis recomendaciones para diseñar, implementar e interpretar evaluaciones educativas.  Estas recomendaciones se basan en las líneas comunes que corren a lo largo de la mayoría, si no es que de todos, los artículos incluidos en este número especial. 1) La necesidad de tener conciencia de los factores políticos, sociales, culturales y económicos que afectan a los estudios de evaluación: 2) la importancia de conocer y hacer explícitos a los actores involucrados; 3) la necesidad de asegurar que los propósitos de la evaluación sean explícitos y claros; 4) la importancia de permitir flexibilidad en la implementación de la evaluación cuando sea necesario dar cuenta de los tópicos de discusión que surjan durante el proceso de evaluación; 6) la Importancia de asegurar que los resultados de la evaluación sean interpretados correctamente y sean debidamente entendidos por los actores participantes y los tomadores de decisiones.Este capítulo final oferece e discute seis recomendações para projetar, implementar e interpretar avaliações educacionais. Estas recomendações são baseadas em linhas comuns que percorrem a maioria, se não todos, os artigos desta edição especial. 1) A necessidade de estar ciente dos fatores políticos, sociais, culturais e económicos que afectam os estudos de avaliação: 2) a importância de conhecer e explicitar os atores envolvidos; 3) a necessidade de garantir que os objetivos da avaliação sejam explícitos e claros; 4) a importância de permitir flexibilidade na implementação da avaliação, quando necessário para dar conta dos tópicos de discussão que surgem durante o processo de avaliação; 6) a importância de assegurar que os resultados da avaliação são interpretados corretamente e estão devidamente compreendido pelos atores participantes e decisores

Introdução à dossiê especial: Perspectivas históricas e contemporâneas sobre avaliação educacional

Most special issues on evaluation focus on one form or type of evaluation (e.g., program evaluation, personnel evaluation, and, increasingly, educational system evaluation. This special issue is unique in that there are papers on system evaluation, program evaluation, teacher evaluation, and student evaluation. Some papers are primarily conceptual, others are empirical, and still others are a little of each. Some papers are more historical, some contemporary, and some a little of each. The authors represent four countries: Canada, Mexico, South Africa, and the United States, providing an international perspective on key issues. The final paper contains six recommendations concerning the future of educational evaluation based on an analysis of commonalities across the papers.La mayoría de los números especiales sobre evaluación se centra en una forma o tipo de evaluación (por ejemplo, evaluación del programa, evaluación del personal y, cada vez más, evaluación de los sistemas educativos. Esta edición especial es única porque hay artículos sobre evaluación de los sistemas, evaluación de programas, evaluación, y evaluación de los alumnos Algunos trabajos son primariamente conceptuales, otros son empíricos, y otros todavía son un poco de cada uno. Algunos artículos son más históricos, algunos contemporáneos, y algunos un poco de cada uno. los autores representan cuatro países: Canadá, México, Sudáfrica y Estados Unidos, proporcionando una perspectiva internacional sobre cuestiones clave. El informe final contiene seis recomendaciones sobre el futuro de la evaluación educativa sobre la base de un análisis de similitudes entre los artículos.A maioria das dossiês especiais sobre avaliação se concentra em uma forma ou tipo de avaliação (por exemplo, avaliação de programa, avaliação de pessoal e, cada vez mais, avaliação de sistemas educacionais. Essa edição especial é única porque há artigos sobre avaliação de sistemas, avaliação de programas, avaliação, e avaliação dos alunos Alguns trabalhos são primariamente conceituais, outros são empíricos, e outros ainda são um pouco de cada um.Alguns artigos são mais históricos, alguns contemporâneos, e alguns um pouco de cada.Estes autores representam quatro países: Canadá, México, África do Sul, e Estados Unidos, proporcionando uma perspectiva internacional sobre questões-chave O relatório final contém seis recomendações sobre o futuro da avaliação educacional com base em uma análise de semelhanças entre os artigos

Program evaluation : large-scale and small-scale studies

It is increasingly incumbent upon ministries of education to build evaluation into new programs – especially those programs where substantial amounts of money are being spent. Each new program will usually be accompanied by questions about the impact and effectiveness of the program. For example, ministries may direct increased resources to classrooms and schools. Question: “Have these resources gone where desired and have the increased resources had an effect on student achievement?” Or, a new curriculum may have been introduced. Question: “How was the curriculum introduced and what problems occurred with its implementation?” Or, a new teacher in-service program may have been developed. Question: “Did the teachers learn what they were meant to learn? And, if so, did what the teachers learn have an effect on what students learned in terms of achievement, attitudes, and/or behaviour?” These are some examples for the case of general school education, but the same is true for new programs in pre-schools, in schools for the handicapped, in vocational education, and so on. All education programs need to include an evaluation component if their success is to be determined, and if weaknesses in the programs are to be identified and corrected. When introducing new education programs it is not easy to assess whether they have had an effect on student learning. The kind of research design needed to get at the true cause of changes in student learning will vary according to the type of learning specified in the program goals. At the same time, however, there are some similarities in terms of sound and defensible evaluation designs. For example, it is always important that some measure of student learning be made at the beginning of a program. Education programs cannot be said to be effective if there are no measurable improvements in student learning over time. Similarly, some comparison group, or groups, of teachers and students should be included in the study. If there are measurable changes in student learning over time, but the magnitude of the changes is not different from changes that occur in non-program students, then the program cannot be said to be effective. This booklet is about small-scale and large-scale program evaluation studies. In many cases, both small- and large-scale studies are needed within any one evaluation project. In this booklet the authors argue that there is a need for both kinds of studies – provided that they are conducted according to scientific standards

Estabilidade do desempenho e eficácia do ensino: Implicações para as políticas de avaliação de professores

The last five to ten years has seen a renewed interest in the stability of teacher behavior and effectiveness. Data on teacher performance and teacher effectiveness are being used increasingly as the basis for decisions about continued employment, tenure and promotion, and financial bonuses. The purpose of this study is to explore the stability of both teacher performance and effectiveness by determining the extent to which performances and effectiveness of individual teachers fluctuate over time. The sample consisted of 132 teachers for whom both observational and state standardized test data were available for five consecutive years. Neither teacher performance nor effectiveness were highly stable over multiple years of the study. The observed relationship between teacher performance and teacher effectiveness was reasonably stable over time, but the magnitude of the relationship was quite small. Teacher performance was also likely to be inflated in low performing schools. We also discuss when different observed patterns may be acceptable based on the purpose for which the data are used.En los últimos cinco a diez años ha visto un renovado interés en la estabilidad de la conducta y la efectividad de los maestros. Los datos sobre el desempeño de los docentes y la eficacia docente se están utilizando cada vez más como la base para las decisiones sobre el mantenimiento del empleo, la tenencia y la promoción, y los bonos financieros. El propósito de este estudio es explorar la estabilidad de rendimiento y eficacia de los docentes analizando en que medida las actuaciones y la eficacia de los profesores individuales fluctúan con el tiempo. La muestra estuvo constituida estaban disponibles datos tanto observacionales y de pruebas estandarizadas durante cinco años consecutivos. Ni el desempeño docente ni la eficacia era muy estable a lo largo de varios años de estudio. La relación observada entre el desempeño de los docentes y la efectividad del maestro era razonablemente estable en el tiempo, pero la magnitud de la relación era bastante pequeña. Es probable que el desempeño de los docentes también se halla incrementado en escuelas de bajo rendimiento. También discutimos en que medida los diferentes patrones observados pueden ser aceptables como una base confiable para los fines propuestos por esas políticas. Nos últimos cinco a dez anos tem visto um renovado interesse na estabilidade do comportamento e da eficácia dos professores. Os dados sobre o desempenho e eficácia dos professores são cada vez mais usados como base para a toma de decisões sobre emprego retenção, posse e promoção, e incentivos. O objetivo deste estudo é explorar a estabilidade do desempenho e eficácia de professores analisando em que medida as ações e efetividade dos professores muda ao longo do tempo. A amostra foi composta por dados de 132 professores de exames e observações obtidos por cinco anos consecutivos. Nem o desempenho e a eficácia dos professores foram muito estáveis ao longo dos vários anos de estudo. A relação observada entre o desempenho do professor e eficácia do professor era razoavelmente estável ao longo do tempo, mas a magnitude da relação foi muito pequena. Desempenho dos professores também parece aumentar em escolas de baixo desempenho. Discutimos, também, em que medida os diferentes padrões observados podem ser aceitáveis para os objetivos das politicas.

A cumulative review of the EOC Community Grants Program: FY2015 - FY2021

On April 12, 2020, the Education Oversight Committee contracted for a review of the Community Block Grant in Education Pilot Program to determine the extent to which the: program fulfilled the intent and detail of the enabling proviso; • ways in which success was defined and measured; grantees fulfilled their commitments, and, if not, why not; improvements achieved and if they were sufficient relative to the investments made; and program elements that should be continued or amended in future grant programs

Experimental and computational characterization of a modified GEC cell for dusty plasma experiments

A self-consistent fluid model developed for simulations of micro- gravity dusty plasma experiments has for the first time been used to model asymmetric dusty plasma experiments in a modified GEC reference cell with gravity. The numerical results are directly compared with experimental data and the experimentally determined dependence of global discharge parameters on the applied driving potential and neutral gas pressure is found to be well matched by the model. The local profiles important for dust particle transport are studied and compared with experimentally determined profiles. The radial forces in the midplane are presented for the different discharge settings. The differences between the results obtained in the modified GEC cell and the results first reported for the original GEC reference cell are pointed out

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Suppresses Host Immunity by Activating the DAF-2 Insulin-Like Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans

Some pathogens have evolved mechanisms to overcome host immune defenses by inhibiting host defense signaling pathways and suppressing the expression of host defense effectors. We present evidence that Pseudomonas aeruginosa is able to suppress the expression of a subset of immune defense genes in the animal host Caenorhabditis elegans by activating the DAF-2/DAF-16 insulin-like signaling pathway. The DAF-2/DAF-16 pathway is important for the regulation of many aspects of organismal physiology, including metabolism, stress response, longevity, and immune function. We show that intestinal expression of DAF-16 is required for resistance to P. aeruginosa and that the suppression of immune defense genes is dependent on the insulin-like receptor DAF-2 and the FOXO transcription factor DAF-16. By visualizing the subcellular localization of DAF-16::GFP fusion protein in live animals during infection, we show that P. aeruginosa–mediated downregulation of a subset of immune genes is associated with the ability to translocate DAF-16 from the nuclei of intestinal cells. Suppression of DAF-16 is mediated by an insulin-like peptide, INS-7, which functions upstream of DAF-2. Both the inhibition of DAF-16 and downregulation of DAF-16–regulated genes, such as thn-2, lys-7, and spp-1, require the P. aeruginosa two-component response regulator GacA and the quorum-sensing regulators LasR and RhlR and are not observed during infection with Salmonella typhimurium or Enterococcus faecalis. Our results reveal a new mechanism by which P. aeruginosa suppresses host immune defense

Prekinjeno šolanje: izobraževanje otrok in mladih v dobi covida-19

Distance education has been practised for generations, although its purpose and form have changed. Correspondence courses, in which students receive instruction via mail and respond with assignments or questions to the instructor, date back to the mid-1800s, if not earlier. As technology changed, so did the nature of distance education. Radio, television, computers, and, most recently, the internet have supported distance education over the years. Research studies on the use and effectiveness of distance education focus almost exclusively on higher education. A recent research synthesis suggests that fewer than five per cent of the studies have addressed K-12 education. The Covid-19 pandemic, however, has brought distance education into K-12 schools and classrooms. Distance education in the Covid-19 era has been referred to as ‘emergency remote teaching’ (ERT) because, with little research on which to rely, teachers must improvise quick solutions under less-than-ideal circumstances, a situation that causes many teachers to experience stress. The purpose of this paper is to address five fundamental questions. First, what problems have K-12 school administrators and teachers faced in implementing ERT? Second, under what conditions has ERT been effective since the advent of the Covid-19 pandemic? Third, what are the strengths of ERT in K-12 schools and classrooms? Fourth, what are the weaknesses of ERT in K-12 schools and classrooms? Fifth, to what extent will lessons learned from ERT influence teaching and learning when the pandemic abates? The paper concludes with a brief set of recommendations. Throughout the paper, the focus is on K-12 education. (DIPF/Orig.

Anderson, Lorin W., Curriculum Alignment: A Re-Examination, Theory into Practice, 41(Autumn, 2002), 255-260.

Reviews studies of content coverage, opportunity to learn, and curriculum alignment involving alignment of objectives, assessments, and instructional activities and materials; discussed in the context of the revised (2001)version of Bloom\u27s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956)