Real Estate Manager Models – Polish Legal Solutions

Purpose – The purpose of this article is to present the development of the profession of real estate manager in the Polish legal system and the path to the current model. Design/methodology/approach – The research focuses on the analysis of Polish legal solutions from before 2013 and after that date. Legislative solutions of other countries were also mentioned for comparison. Findings – Descriptive studies are based on the texts of legal acts and the analysis of the literature. The conducted research includes an assessment of the effects of the reform of legal regulation carried out in 2013, pursuant to which the profession of a manager was deregulated. On this basis, preliminary normative conclusions were formulated as to the achieved results of the change in the law. The article is a review, its aim is to analyze the legal conditions of the activity consisting in real estate management in Poland. Research limitations and implications – the analysis is limited to the regulations of Polish law, European solutions are indicated, for example, only as a background for consideration

The legal nature of resolutions of the governing bodies of companies and their challengeability in the light of the provisions of Polish law

Angielska wersja artykułu opublikowanego równolegle w języku polskim.The subject of this article is an analysis of the functioning models of the claima-bility of the resolutions of the bodies of companies in terms of the connection of these models with the legal nature of these resolutions. In the case of resolutions of share-holders meetings of companies, the provisions of the Code of Commercial Companies and Partnerships provide for a judicial review of each resolution adopted by that body. A different situation occurs in the case of resolutions of supervisory boards of compa-nies, for which no procedure for pursuing legal actions against them is provided for in the CCC&P. The doctrine and the case law assume that, as a consequence of the appli-cation of the principle of unity of civil law, these resolutions can be challenged in court, as can invalid legal transactions. In this case, therefore, the legal nature of the resolution, and thus the determination that it is a legal transaction is crucial for the possibility of its challenging in court.Przedmiotem artykułu jest analiza funkcjonujących modeli zaskarżalności uchwał or-ganów spółek kapitałowych pod kątem powiązania tych modeli z charakterem praw-nym tych uchwał. Przepisy kodeksu spółek handlowych przewidują sądowy tryb kon-troli każdej uchwały zgromadzeń wspólników spółek kapitałowych. Odmienna sytuacja występuje w przypadku uchwał rad nadzorczych spółek kapitałowych, dla których nie przewidziano w regulacji k.s.h. trybu ich zaskarżania. W doktrynie oraz orzecznictwie przyjęto, że w konsekwencji zastosowania zasady jedności prawa cywilnego uchwały te mogą być kwestionowane na drodze sądowej tak jak nieważne czynności prawne. Charakter prawny uchwały, czyli ustalenie, że jest ona czynnością prawną, ma więc decydujące znaczenie dla możliwości jej zaskarżenia

The housing community in Polish law: methods of management of communal areas

A housing community belongs to organisational units which are not legal persons but have legal capacity. The fundamental purpose of housing community activities is the management of common property. A specific feature of the Polish regulation is the distinction between “large” and “small” housing communities, on the basis of the criterion of the number of premises comprising the real property. To establish the rules of management of communal areas in Polish residential communities it is necessary in each case to determine whether an agreement changing the rules of management of communal areas has been entered into, and if not, to determine whether the housing community in question is “large” or “small”.Wspólnota mieszkaniowa należy do kategorii jednostek organizacyjnych niebędącychbosobami prawnymi, którym ustawa przyznaje zdolność prawną.bPodstawowym celem funkcjonowania wspólnoty jest sprawowanie zarządu nieruchomością wspólną. SpecyIczną cechą polskiej regulacji jest rozróżnienie „dużych” i „małych” wspólnot mieszkaniowych, na podstawie kryterium liczby lokali wchodzących w skład nieruchomości. Dla ustalenia zasad zarządu nieruchomością wspólną w polskiej wspólnocie mieszkaniowej konieczne jest każdorazowo ustalenie, czy została zawarta umowa zmieniająca zasady zarządu nieruchomością wspólną, a jeśli nie, ustalenie, czy mamy do czynienia z „dużą” czy z „małą” wspólnotą mieszkaniową

The Status of a Limited Liability Company in the Polish Legal System

The article provides some reflections on limited liability companies in Poland. There are six types of commercial companies in Polish law, but 82.27 % of the companies in Poland are limited liability companies. Therefore, we can speak about the occurrence of a specific phenomenon of this form of company in Poland. An attempt to find an answer to the question about the reasons for the great popularity of this particular company requires an analysis of legal solutions dedicated to it and comparison with other types of entrepreneurs. It is worth considering the reasons why this form of company has become the most popular form of doing business in Poland in the last thirty years

Effects of warming on the phytoplankton succession and trophic interactions

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of light and temperature on the spring phytoplankton bloom and disentangle direct and indirect effects of warming on phytoplankton. I conducted two indoor mesocosm experiments with the natural winter plankton and performed a metaanalysis on the effects of warming on primary productivity and diversity-productivity relationship. I found a general direct positive temperature effect on the carbon specific primary productivity. I observed a decline of phytoplankton standing biomass and a decline in phytoplankton size with warming, which effects were related to increased grazing pressure under higher temperature. Higher consumer activity changed community composition and dominance of phytoplankton species and increased phytoplankton diversity. I concluded that the primary productivity in marine pelagic ecosystem depends on the relative strength between direct and indirect temperature effects and on the consumer-producer interactions

Legal Status of Housing Communities in Poland

W artykule przedstawiono ewolucję poglądów polskiej doktryny na status prawny wspólnoty mieszkaniowej, wraz z uwzględnieniem orzecznictwa oraz skutkiem nowelizacji Kodeksu cywilnego dokonanej w roku 2003.The number of housing communities in Poland is on the rise as they have a property right known as "separate ownership of the premises". Housing communities are now an important alternative to the still popular housing cooperatives. Housing cooperatives have many legal orders, and their legal status varies. Polish housing communities do not have legal personality, which raises questions about their legal status. The author of this article explains about the legal regulations around housing communities, analyses the contents of the Polish legal doctrine, and reviews important judgments regarding the legal character of housing communities. In conclusion, the author recognizes Polish housing communities as "defective legal persons", i.e., they are subject to rights that are independent of those of the owners of premises and therefore have legal capacity. In this respect, the Polish model bears similarity to the model adopted in the German legal system

Selected aspects of water and sewage management in Poland in the context of sustainable urban development

Effective water and sewage management is one of the most important enablers of sustainable urban development. In Poland, water and sewage management has been undergoing systematic transformation since the 1990s. This process intensified with Poland’s accession to the European Union in 2004. The aim of the work is to analyse and evaluate water and sewage management in cities in Poland in terms of sustainable development. This was made possible by selecting seven variables from which a summative index (SI) was calculated. The analysis revealed a number of positive changes that have occurred in this field. These were mainly: a decrease in water consumption in households and industry, and an increased share of wastewater treated biologically or using enhanced nutrient removal in total wastewater. An increase in SI was found in 98% of the researched cities. The largest improvement in water and sewage management took place in cities of populations below 100,000 and little industry, and in three large cities, namely Warsaw and Szczecin

Climate change and the spring bloom: a mesocosm study on the influence of light and temperature on phytoplankton and mesozooplankton

We examined the simultaneous effect of climate warming and light availability on the phytoplankton spring bloom using 1400 l (1 m depth) indoor mesocosms. The timing of the spring bloom was advanced both by warming and higher light intensity, but the influence of temperature on the phytoplankton community was stronger than the light effect. Warming affected phytoplankton directly and indirectly via enhanced grazing pressure at higher temperatures. Warming resulted in markedly lower phytoplankton biomass and a shift towards smaller cell sizes. It also led to changes in the community structure of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Among phytoplankton, large-celled diatoms were most negatively affected by warming. Overwintering zooplankton species (Oithona, Pseudocalanus) remained dominant in the cold treatments, while they were replaced by late spring or summer species (Acartia, Centropages, Temora) in the warmed treatments. Our results show that understanding food web interactions might be very important to the study of the effects of climate warming on pelagic ecosystems

Implementacja zrównoważonego rozwoju w miastach azjatyckich

The article’s purpose is to present issues of implementation of sustainable development on the example of the concept of eco-city and its implementation in a Asian space of city. Among a examples of issues discussed in article are: from the theoretical site - analyze the concept of eco-city and guidelines for eco-city development based on the concept of sustainability, and from the practical site - stages of implementation of sustainable development in cities and above all overview of concrete examples of projects eco-cities in Asia, including in the United Arab Emirates, China and Japan

W kierunku bio-terytorialnej koncepcji władzy – różnice w prowadzeniu środowiskowych narracjach Izraela i Palestyny

Koncepcja władzy bio-terytorialnej, u podstaw której leży teoria władzy Michaela Foucaulta, stoi w opozycji do tradycyjnej, terytorialnej koncepcji sprawowania rządów. Relacja Izraela i Palestyny, dwóch odmiennych stylów władzy w oparciu o prowadzone środowiskowe narracje, staje się zatem dobrym tłem dla omówienia przejścia, jakie nastąpiło od terytorialnej do eksterytorialnej formy rządów. Kwestie ekologiczne, dotyczące przede wszystkim takich problemów, jak przeludnienie, niedobór zasobów naturalnych, w tym głównie wody czy też zjawiska pustynnienia, coraz częściej stają się pretekstem dla konceptualizacji stosunków władzy. Celem niniejszej pracy jest przybliżenie dychotomii środowiskowych narracji w kontekście ich wpływu nad dominującą koncepcją władzy w tych dwóch państwach. W artykule przybliżono dwie zasadnicze kwestie: różnice między terytorialnym a bioterytorialnym stylem władzy oraz Izraelskie i Pestyńskie narracje środowiskowe