To shred or not to shred: A comparative techno-economic assessment of lithium ion battery hydrometallurgical recycling retaining value and improving circularity in LIB supply chains

Present techniques for recycling lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) tend to employ shredding as a preliminary step. This results in size reduction and passivation of reactive components. However, it also delivers lower purity products, decreasing process economics. We propose that disassembly followed by delamination retains product value and simplifies downstream chemistries. A retro-economic analysis shows the theoretical cost of reprocessing for a hypothetical $100 / kWh battery. Ten different hydrometallurgical approaches to LIB recycling are contrasted through techno-economic analysis of the wet part of the process. We show that shredded material can be recycled into new cathode material with a cost saving of up to 20%. Comparable processes using disassembled cells enable up to 80% cost saving (not accounting for the actual step of disassembling the cell). In the light of these results, we set out the barriers to disassembly of LIB cells, recommending the importance of design for disassembly as key to improving the circularity of LIB supply chains, ensuring that greater value is retained within the system

A toolbox for improved recycling of critical metals and materials in low-carbon technologies

The shift towards renewable energy sources combined with other factors, such as population increase, digitalisation, and a need to decrease carbon footprint, leads to increasing metal consumption. To meet this growing demand and avoid accumulation of waste in landfills, efficient recycling methods are needed. Current pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods achieve complete digestion of end-of-life materials using high temperatures and high consumption of chemicals, respectively. These methods can be applied to recover critical metals from end-of-life materials but suffer from inherent limitations when it comes to complex end-of-life materials made of interpenetrated layers of metals, inorganics and organics. This critical review describes a set of chemical and physical tools for improved recovery of metals from various waste streams, with a strong focus on the renewable energy sector (wind turbines, solar cells) as well as lithium-ion batteries and catalysts for hydrogen production. These tools target weaknesses at the interfaces between different layers to liberate the valuable metals. Physical methods used for size reduction and separation, ultrasound to process brittle materials, hydrogen decrepitation, selective dissolution and bio-metallurgical methods to process metals are among those reviewed. Management of inorganic and organic fractions is also emphasised, with pyrolysis and solvolysis to process organics and ways to recycle these materials. Limitations and future directions are discussed, providing a comprehensive guide to improve recycling of metals with versatile tools

The sustainable materials roadmap

Abstract Over the past 150 years, our ability to produce and transform engineered materials has been responsible for our current high standards of living, especially in developed economies. However, we must carefully think of the effects our addiction to creating and using materials at this fast rate will have on the future generations. The way we currently make and use materials detrimentally affects the planet Earth, creating many severe environmental problems. It affects the next generations by putting in danger the future of the economy, energy, and climate. We are at the point where something must drastically change, and it must change now. We must create more sustainable materials alternatives using natural raw materials and inspiration from nature while making sure not to deplete important resources, i.e. in competition with the food chain supply. We must use less materials, eliminate the use of toxic materials and create a circular materials economy where reuse and recycle are priorities. We must develop sustainable methods for materials recycling and encourage design for disassembly. We must look across the whole materials life cycle from raw resources till end of life and apply thorough life cycle assessments (LCAs) based on reliable and relevant data to quantify sustainability. We need to seriously start thinking of where our future materials will come from and how could we track them, given that we are confronted with resource scarcity and geographical constrains. This is particularly important for the development of new and sustainable energy technologies, key to our transition to net zero. Currently ‘critical materials’ are central components of sustainable energy systems because they are the best performing. A few examples include the permanent magnets based on rare earth metals (Dy, Nd, Pr) used in wind turbines, Li and Co in Li-ion batteries, Pt and Ir in fuel cells and electrolysers, Si in solar cells just to mention a few. These materials are classified as ‘critical’ by the European Union and Department of Energy. Except in sustainable energy, materials are also key components in packaging, construction, and textile industry along with many other industrial sectors. This roadmap authored by prominent researchers working across disciplines in the very important field of sustainable materials is intended to highlight the outstanding issues that must be addressed and provide an insight into the pathways towards solving them adopted by the sustainable materials community. In compiling this roadmap, we hope to aid the development of the wider sustainable materials research community, providing a guide for academia, industry, government, and funding agencies in this critically important and rapidly developing research space which is key to future sustainability.European Research Council [ERC-2014-STG H2020 639088; ERC-2017-POC 790518] Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council [EPSRC EP/R511675/1