Low-cost household water treatment: A techno-behavioural intervention for local sustainable development in Afghanistan

Access to safe drinking water is a critical global challenge, in remote rural areas and urban centres alike. A pressing concern within this challenge lies in the sustainability of groundwater and the livelihoods reliant on it. However, a comprehensive study of such a complex issue as water insecurity requires a multidisciplinary approach that can synthesize perspectives from the natural and social sciences. With the overarching aim of studying and developing means to rectify water insecurity in low-income settings, this thesis pursues such an approach and contributes insights to the broader global dialogue through the case of the conflict-affected urban context of Kabul – where groundwater and livelihood challenges are driven especially by the contamination and rapid depletion of the local aquifers. The multidisciplinary study begins with a geo-hydrology perspective that explores the sources of groundwater and the factors contributing to groundwater contamination. Additionally, it explores the potential of using clay disc filters for household water treatment from an earth sciences perspective. Complementing these natural science perspectives, the research also incorporates the COM-B framework, which draws from psychology and behavioural science. By leveraging anthropological techniques with a firm grounding in development research, the thesis further adopts a bottom-up approach to inform survey research. Translating this multidisciplinary approach into the empirical research underlying this thesis, firstly, the groundwater recharge sources and groundwater dynamics in aquifers of Kabul city were explored relying on the analysis of the stable isotopic composition (δ18O and δ2H) of groundwater and surface water from the Upper Kabul River and Logar River. The results showed that precipitation was the primary source of recharge in the Central Kabul sub-basin, while mixed recharge from the river, precipitation, and irrigation return flow governed recharge in the Logar sub-basin. In the Paghman and Lower Kabul, and Upper Kabul sub-basins, increased rainfall input was also observed. The contribution of river water to groundwater recharge decreased from an average of over 60% in 2007 to less than 50% in 2020. Also, substantial groundwater level depletion was documented in the Central Kabul sub-basin and western parts of the city. In addition to examining recharge sources and rates, the bacteriological and chemical characteristics of Kabul’s groundwater were analyzed. In Kabul, 4.1 million people rely on groundwater, making it critical to understand its contamination trends in the face of rapid development and social changes. The results showed an increase in E. coli and NO3-, indicating anthropogenic impacts on shallow groundwater quality. The Water Quality Index revealed that less than 35% of shallow groundwater samples had good quality. To address these issues, the implementation of point-of-use water purification was proposed as a temporary solution for reducing the occurrence of waterborne diseases. Moreover, a qualitative study, based on 68 semi-structured interviews, explored the factors limiting access to clean drinking water in two peri-urban areas in Kabul. These factors included dysfunctional water supply networks, water price inequalities, uneven development, and aid prioritization. In addition, the stressors and dynamic access to water such as droughts, contamination, and electricity disruption were documented. Further, this research examined the nature and underlying factors of inter-household water-sharing practices. Water availability, the costs to the donor, the frequency of requests for water, the period over which they operate, and religious beliefs were all found to play key roles in determining water-sharing practices. The added influence of droughts in limiting water-sharing practices further highlighted the dynamics in performing the behaviour. Furthermore, this research explored the factors that influence household water treatment practices, relied on a comprehensive behaviour change model (i.e., COM-B model). The results of the study showed that reflective and automatic motivation, as well as physical opportunity, had a statistically significant association with the performance of household water treatment behaviour. The findings suggest that socioeconomic, psychosocial, and contextual factors are all important in understanding and promoting household water treatment practices, and should be taken into account to develop interventions that are tailored to the specific needs and obstacles of different communities. Lastly, the potential of using clay disc filters, frequently termed ceramic water filters, made from locally-sourced clay samples, was explored for removing bacteria from water. The clay discs were produced by mixing clay and sorted sawdust in a ratio of 1:2, and the filtration rate was 1 litre per hour. Clay disc filters have the potential to be a low-cost and locally-sourced solution for improving water quality in Afghanistan, but further research and development is needed to optimize their production, particularly by leveraging the skills of local potters in Kabul. Overall, the synergistic combination of disciplinary techniques was thus capable of shedding light on the complex interplay between water resources, technology, and human behaviour (i.e., household water treatment) and provided a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and solutions surrounding access to safe drinking water

Between a rock and a hard place: A geosocial approach to water insecurity in Kabul

Approximately 50% of the global population currently experiences severe water scarcity, a situation likely to intensify due to climate change. At the same time, the poorest population segments bear the greatest burden of water insecurity. This intersection of geophysical, geochemical, and socio-economic dimensions of water (in)security challenges requires a geosocial perspective, one that attends simultaneously to geophysical, geochemical, and socio-economic dimensions. Our qualitative study, conducted through 68 semi-structured interviews across two distinct sub-basins in Kabul, revealed disparities in groundwater levels, water quality, water prices, and lived experiences of water insecurity. While environmental stressors like drought and groundwater contamination contribute to water insecurity, socio-economic factors such as gender and property ownership exacerbate these impacts: Women and children bear a heavy burden of securing water, with children’s involvement in water-fetching leading to instances of violence. Furthermore, trucked water costs 33 times that of piped water, echoing alarming global trends where less privileged communities endure disproportionately greater challenges of water inaccessibility. We outline policy implications for monitoring groundwater abstraction and underscore the need for tailored strategies to combat water scarcity, such as pro-poor water strategies. Additionally, our work draws attention to the role of local gatekeepers who have informally regulated water usage in response to drought-induced scarcity, particularly in the absence of functioning government policies, underscoring the importance of collaboration with local stakeholders to ensure sustainable access to water. We argue that a geosocial approach to water (in)security can provide high-resolution findings and reveal critical gaps between common metrics and the realities of water (in)security, which also underlines the need for integrated approaches incorporating both quantitative and qualitative research

Spatial estimation of groundwater quality, hydrogeochemical investigation, and health impacts of shallow groundwater in Kabul city, Afghanistan

The management of groundwater in densely populated areas with no centralized water treatment is critical for the prevention of diseases and maintaining sanitation. Here, we determine the bacteriological and chemical characteristics of groundwater in Kabul city, a resource that 4.1 million individuals rely on. Groundwater samples were analyzed from 41 newly established piezometric wells across Kabul, and data were compared with the last detailed study, undertaken in 2007, to understand contamination trends in an area that has undergone significant development and social changes. Piper diagrams, Gibbs diagrams, correlation analysis, and bivariate plots examine the hydrogeochemical and natural occurring processes of groundwater. The average concentration of cations followed the order Na+  > Mg2+  > Ca2+  > K+, and anions HCO3− > NO3− > Cl− > SO42− > F with Gibbs diagrams indicating mainly rock-weathering influence groundwater chemistry. An increase in nitrate (NO3−) and E. coli indicates anthropogenic activities impacting the shallow groundwater quality, with significantly elevated nitrate (over 50 mg/L) and E. coli (up to 250 CFU/100 mL). The increasing presence of E. coli and NO3− in the shallow groundwater of Kabul city in turn suggests problematic links to the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Additionally, the water quality index (WQI) was used to assess groundwater quality, and rank its suitability for drinking purposes. The WQI analysis showed that less than 35% of shallow groundwater samples had good water quality. The findings of this study are crucial for the development and sustainable management of groundwater in the city. In short term, we propose interventions such as point-of-use (POU) water purification which may offer temporary respite for waterborne disease prevention. Kabul city requires immediate attention to developing sustainable groundwater management policies, expansion of the water supply network, groundwater quality monitoring, and wastewater management

Security implications of climate development in conflict-affected states implications of local-level effects of rural hydropower development on farmers in Herat

Development initiatives aimed at mitigating or adapting to climate change impacts may result in unanticipated effects especially in conflict-affected contexts. To improved understanding of the implications of future climate development projects in conflict-affected states, this article qualitatively examines the experiences of local communities in the Zinda Jan district, located downstream from the Salma Dam in Herat Province, Afghanistan. Conducted in 2018, the research questions what local-level side effects (LLSEs) were experienced by communities downstream of the Salma Dam after its 2016 inauguration, and how these LLSEs might affect the potential for sustainable peace. The article builds from 25 in-depth interviews with local stakeholders in the Zinda Jan district, and highlights how communities generally experienced increased water scarcity after the completion of the dam in 2016, due to poor water management and lack of necessary infrastructure related to the dam. This water scarcity was a factor in grievances related to water access among local communities, and increased the likelihood of related communal violence. However, local perspectives also indicate desire for joint management of water resources between the state and civilians, from the source to their farms. The article provides important insight for research and policy actors to better understand the implications of future climate development projects in conflict-affected states, and their inherent contribution and/or risk to broader peace processes

Determinants of household safe drinking water practices in Kabul, Afghanistan: New insights from behavioural survey data

More than 2 billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water. Household water treatment (HWT) is an interim option for reducing the risk of water born disease. Understanding the factors that influence HWT behaviour is crucial for delivering successful interventions aimed at scaling relevant technologies, but the literature tends to emphasise psychological determinants with little consideration of socioeconomic and contextual factors. This article responds to this literature by using the COM-B model to examine the determinants of HWT practices through a comprehensive and context-sensitive behaviour definition. We informed this model through a cross-sectional survey design in which we collected data from 913 households in two peri‑urban neighbourhoods of Kabul, Afghanistan. Our findings from descriptive statistical and regression analysis highlight the importance of not only psychological but also socio-economic and contextual determinants of HWT behaviour: Especially the COM-B dimensions of reflective and automatic motivation, and physical opportunity – which are heavily influenced by local context and economic circumstances – had statistically significant associations with performing HWT. The practical significance of these dimensions was similarly pronounced. For example, an increase in the physical opportunity index by 0.1 units from an average value of 0.7 to 0.8 would be associated with a 7.7 percentage-point higher likelihood of HWT performance. These results suggest that the COM-B model can be utilised to systematically design interventions aimed at promoting HWT practices, while highlighting the need to broaden behavioural analyses of HWT and consider contextual factors to develop interventions that are tailored to the specific needs and obstacles of different communities

Evaluation of Paired Watershed Runoff Relationships since Recovery from a Major Hurricane on a Coastal Forest—A Basis for Examining Effects of Pinus palustris Restoration on Water Yield

The objective of this study was to test pre-treatment hydrologic calibration relationships between paired headwater watersheds (WS77 (treatment) and WS80 (control)) and explain the difference in flow, compared to earlier published data, using daily rainfall, runoff, and a water table measured during 2011–2019 in the Santee Experimental Forest in coastal South Carolina, USA. Mean monthly runoff difference between WS80 and WS77 of −6.80 mm for 2011–2019, excluding October 2015 with an extreme flow event, did not differ significantly from −8.57 mm (p = 0.27) for the 1969–1978 period or from −3.89 mm for 2004–2011, the post-Hurricane Hugo (1989) recovery period. Both the mean annual runoff coefficient and monthly runoff were non-significantly higher for WS77 than for WS80. The insignificant higher runoff by chance was attributed to WS77’s three times smaller surface storage and higher hypsometrical integral than those of WS80, but not to rainfall. The 2011–2019 geometric mean regression-based monthly runoff calibration relationship, excluding the October 2015 runoff, did not differ from the relationship for the post-Hugo recovery period, indicating complete recovery of the forest stand by 2011. The 2011–2019 pre-treatment regression relationship, which was not affected by periodic prescribed burning on WS77, was significant and predictable, providing a basis for quantifying longleaf pine restoration effects on runoff later in the future. However, the relationship will have to be used cautiously when extrapolating for extremely large flow events that exceed its flow bounds

Investigating groundwater recharge using hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes in Kabul city, a semi-arid region

There are significant concerns about the sustainability of groundwater, and the inhabitants that depend on it, due to rapid groundwater depletion from the alluvium aquifers in Kabul city. Sustainable groundwater management in Kabul requires an understanding of the sources and rates of groundwater recharge, however, both these parameters are poorly quantified. In this study, we examined the stable isotopic composition (δ18O and δ2H) of groundwater and surface water from the Upper Kabul River and Logar River. Utilizing the hydrograph separation approach, we assessed the percentage contribution of river water to groundwater, including the uncertainty analysis of its estimation. Our results, based on isotopic analysis, demonstrated that precipitation was the primary source of groundwater recharge in the Central Kabul sub-basin. Mixed recharge from the river, precipitation and irrigation return flow governed groundwater recharge in the Logar sub-basin. In Paghman and Lower Kabul, and Upper Kabul sub-basins, more rainfall input was observed besides the river contribution to groundwater recharge. We have noted substantial spatial and depth-related variation in the contribution of the river water to groundwater recharge. In the study area, the river water contribution (fraction contribution) to groundwater recharge has changed from over 60 ± 5 % (on average) in 2007 to less than 50 ± 5 % (on average) in 2020. We documented significant groundwater level depletion in the Central Kabul sub-basin and western parts of Kabul city (Paghman and Upper Kabul sub-basins). The present study provides important insights into the local water cycle in Kabul City, which is critical for developing sustainable management strategies for groundwater sources in this semi-arid region

Extraction of calcium from red gypsum for calcium carbonate production

Red gypsum can be considered as a long term storage of carbon dioxide through mineral carbonation. However, for the efficient carbonation, the calcium ions need to be extracted in the solution phase, followed by the carbonation reaction. Therefore, the extraction step is the key of successful mineral carbonation. In this study, solvent extraction of calcium and iron ions has been carried out using different types of acids and bases. In addition, the kinetic study of the extraction has also been performed. The study showed that the base solution was not capable of extracting significant amounts of calcium and iron, while acid solution was very efficient in extracting the ions. However, H2SO4 resulted in higher calcium extraction efficiency as compared to HCl and HNO3. Increasing reaction temperature from 30 to 70 °C and also increasing reaction time from 5 to 120 min were found to be effective in enhancing the degree of extraction for all the three acids used. Kinetic analyses found that the dissolution rate of red gypsum is controlled by the combination of product layer diffusion and chemical reaction control. The calculated activation energy of calcium extraction was 44.02, 37.68, and 42.73 kJ/mol for H2SO4, HCl and HNO3, respectivel

Mineral carbonation of red gypsum via pH-swing process: Effect of CO2 pressure on the efficiency and products characteristics

The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of indirect carbonation of red gypsum through pH swing process. The effect of CO2 pressure as one of the major controlling parameters in carbonation process was investigated in details. The dissolution of red gypsum was performed using 2M H2SO4 at 70°C for 60min reaction time. The pH was regulated using NH4OH, which also precipitated out the impurities from the solution. Finally, the calcium rich solution was poured in an autoclave reactor and CO2 was injected into the reactor for carbonate precipitation. The experimental results showed that the Fe, the main impurity can be effectively separated prior to carbonation stage (92-95%). At low pH the Fe was separated while at high pH Ca was precipitated as carbonate. The carbonation efficiency was directly affected by the CO2 pressure and the maximum efficiency (100%) was achieved when 8bar CO2 pressure was used. In addition, carbonation experiments resulted in CaCO3 production in the form of calcite, aragonite, and vaterite with 98% purity