Attaining Aichi Target 11: How Well Are Marine Ecosystem Services Covered by Protected Areas?

The spatial coverage of marine and coastal protected areas worldwide has shown a rapid increase in recent years. Over 32% of the world's coral reefs and over 36% of the world's mangrove forests now fall within protected areas. However, simple measures of extent are insufficient for assessing progress toward achieving global targets. Notably, the CBD Aichi Target 11 calls for 'at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services' to be protected. There is, therefore, an urgent need to assess how well protected areas cover these areas of importance for ecosystem services

Strategies for sustainable livestock production in Brazil and the European Union

Livestock provide as much as one-third of all protein consumed by humans, but have a disproportionate and growing environmental impact. Livestock production occupies 50-75% of agricultural land, contributes 15% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and drives agricultural expansion in the tropics through the global trade in animal feed. This thesis therefore evaluates two strategies for shrinking the environmental impact of the livestock sector. First, I evaluate the potential for food losses (i.e. foods which were intended for human consumption, but which ultimately are not directly eaten by people) to replace grain- and soybean-based pig feeds in Europe. While food losses have been included in animal feed for millennia, the practice is all but banned in the European Union, because of disease control concerns. Several East Asian states have in the last 20 years, however, introduced regulated systems for safely recycling food losses into animal feed. I combine data from multiple sources (including government reports, the animal science literature, and factory-floor data from South Korean swill-feed factories), and find that the introduction of East Asian practices for recycling food losses as animal feed could reduce the land use of EU pork (20% of world production) by one fifth, potentially saving 1.8 million hectares of agricultural land. This would also reduce 12/14 other assessed environmental impacts and deliver economic savings for pig farmers, as swill (cooked food losses) costs 40-60% less than conventional grain-based feeds. In a survey of pig farmers (n=82) and other agricultural stakeholders (n=81) at a UK agricultural trade fair, we found high support (>75%) for the relegalisation of swill. Support for swill feeding arose in part because respondents thought that swill would lower costs, increase profitability, and be better for the environment. Our results also confirmed the critical importance of disease control and consumer communication when considering relegalisation, as respondents who thought that swill would increase disease risks and be unpalatable to consumers were less supportive of relegalisation. Any new system for the use of swill will require careful design of regulation to ensure that heat-treatment is sufficient, and to reduce to a negligible level the risk of uncooked animal by-products entering feed. Our results suggest, however, that if such a system can be established, there would be multiple benefits and widespread support for its relegalisation. Second, I evaluated the potential to increase the productivity of cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon. While high hopes have been placed on the potential for intensification of low-productivity cattle ranching to spare land for other agricultural uses, cattle productivity in the Amazon biome (29% of the Brazilian cattle herd) remains stubbornly low, and it is not clear how to realize theoretical productivity gains in practice. I therefore (a) surveyed six on-the-ground initiatives which have been working with local farmers to improve cattle ranching, quantifying their farm practices, animal performance, and economic results; and (b) analysed the progress that has already been made in reconciling agriculture and forest conservation, by evaluating the impact of the flagship anti-deforestation policy, the priority list (Municípios Prioritários). The survey showed that cattle intensification initiatives operating in four states have used a wide range of technologies to improve productivity by 30-490%, while supporting compliance with the Brazilian Forest Code. Using two complementary difference-in-difference estimators, I then found no evidence for trade-offs between agriculture and forest conservation under the priority list; instead, reductions in deforestation in priority list municipalities were paired with increases in cattle production and productivity (cattle/hectare). The policy had no effect on dairy or crop production. Together, these results provide real-world evidence that increases in cattle production in Brazil do not need to come at the expense of the country’s remaining native vegetation.This research was funded by BBSRC DTP grant BB/J014540/1 and the Tim Whitmore Trust Fund

Ecosystem service responses to rewilding - first-order estimates from 27 years of rewilding in the Scottish Highlands

<p>Rewilding as a conservation strategy is gaining increasing scientific, political and public attention, yet empirical evaluations of its impacts remain scarce, especially with regards to ecosystem services. We provide evidence of the change in three ecosystem services (timber [provisioning], pollination [regulating], and aesthetics [cultural]) from up to 27 years of a moorland rewilding strategy in the Scottish Highlands using a chronosequence of rewilded plots and adjacent controls. These services were assessed in the field and using online surveys. We found that rewilding increased aboveground woody biomass and restored natural tree recruitment processes, although the latter only emerged after at least 15 years of rewilding. Rewilding caused a linear increase in perceived aesthetic quality over the first 27 years, but had no effect on pollination visitation rates. Thus, we conclude that rewilding can be used for ecosystem service recovery in moorland landscapes, but that results vary depending on the preferred service.</p><p><b>EDITED BY</b> John Haslett</p><p></p> <p><b>EDITED BY</b> John Haslett</p

Reducing the land use of EU pork production: where there's swill, there's a way.

Livestock production occupies approximately 75% of agricultural land, consumes 35% of the world's grain, and produces 14.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. With demand for meat and dairy products forecast to increase 60% by 2050, there is a pressing need to reduce the footprint of livestock farming. Food wastes have a long history as a source of environmentally benign animal feed, but their inclusion in feed is currently banned in the EU because of disease control concerns. A number of East Asian states have in the last 20 years, however, introduced regulated, centralised systems for safely recycling food wastes into animal feed. This study quantifies the land use savings that could be realised by changing EU legislation to promote the use of food wastes as animal feed and reviews the policy, public, and industry barriers to the use of food waste as feed. Our results suggest that the application of existing technologies could reduce the land use of EU pork (20% of world production) by one fifth, potentially saving 1.8 million hectares of agricultural land. While swill presents a low-cost, low-impact animal feed, widespread adoption would require efforts to address consumer and farmer concerns over food safety and disease control.E.K.H.J.zE is funded by BBSRC grant BB/J014540/1.This is the final version of the article. It was first available from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.11.00

Does governance play a role in the distribution of invasive alien species?

Invasive alien species (IAS) constitute a major threat to global biological diversity. In order to control their spread, a detailed understanding of the factors influencing their distribution is essential. Although international trade is regarded as a major force structuring spatial patterns of IAS, the role of other social factors remains unclear. Despite studies highlighting the importance of strong governance in slowing drivers of biodiversity loss such as logging, deforestation, and agricultural intensification, no study has yet analyzed its contribution to the issue of IAS. Using estimates of governance quality and comprehensive spatiotemporal IAS data, we performed multiple linear regressions to investigate the effect of governance quality upon the distribution of species listed under "100 of the worst" IAS in 38 Eurasian countries as defined by DASIE. Our model suggested that for countries with higher GDP, stronger governance was associated with a greater number of the worst IAS; in contrast, for the lowest GDP countries under analysis, stronger governance was associated with fewer of these IAS. We elucidate how the quality of governance within a country has implications for trade, tourism, transport, legislation, and economic development, all of which influence the spread of IAS. While our findings support the common assumption that strengthening governance benefits conservation interventions in countries of smaller economy, we find that this effect is not universal. Stronger governance alone cannot adequately address the problem of IAS, and targeted action is required in relatively high-GDP countries in order to stem the influx of IAS associated with high volumes of trade

A holistic approach to the environmental evaluation of food waste prevention

The environmental evaluation of food waste prevention is considered a challenging task due to the globalised nature of the food supply chain and the limitations of existing evaluation tools. The most significant of these is the rebound effect: the associated environmental burdens of substitutive consumption that arises as a result of economic savings made from food waste prevention. This study introduces a holistic approach to addressing these challenges, with a focus on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from household food waste in the UK. It uses a hybrid life-cycle assessment model coupled with a highly detailed multi-regional environmentally extended input output analysis to capture environmental impacts across the global food supply chain. The study also takes into consideration the rebound effect, which was modelled using a linear specification of an almost ideal demand system. The study finds that food waste prevention could lead to substantial reductions in GHG emissions in the order of 706-896 kg CO$_2$-eq. per tonne of food waste, with most of these savings (78%) occurring as a result of avoided food production overseas. The rebound effect may however reduce such GHG savings by up to 60%. These findings provide a deeper insight into our understanding of the environmental impacts of food waste prevention: the study demonstrates the need to adopt a holistic approach when developing food waste prevention policies in order to mitigate the rebound effect and highlight the importance of increasing efficiency across the global food supply chain, particularly in developing countries.IDB Cambridge International Scholarship, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (Grant ID: BB/J014540/1

Support amongst UK pig farmers and agricultural stakeholders for the use of food losses in animal feed.

While food losses (foods which were intended for human consumption, but which ultimately are not directly eaten by people) have been included in animal feed for millennia, the practice is all but banned in the European Union. Amid recent calls to promote a circular economy, we conducted a survey of pig farmers (n = 82) and other agricultural stakeholders (n = 81) at a UK agricultural trade fair on their attitudes toward the use of food losses in pig feed, and the potential relegalisation of swill (the use of cooked food losses as feed). While most respondents found the use of feeds containing animal by-products or with the potential for intra-species recycling (i.e. pigs eating pork products) to be less acceptable than feeds without, we found strong support (>75%) for the relegalisation of swill among both pig farmers and other stakeholders. We fit multi-hierarchical Bayesian models to understand people's position on the relegalisation of swill, finding that respondents who were concerned about disease control and the perception of the pork industry supported relegalisation less, while people who were concerned with farm financial performance and efficiency or who thought that swill would benefit the environment and reduce trade-deficits, were more supportive. Our results provide a baseline estimate of support amongst the large-scale pig industry for the relegalisation of swill, and suggest that proponents for its relegalisation must address concerns about disease control and the consumer acceptance of swill-fed pork