The Ebola pandemic as a threat to international peace and security: a question of collective security or global governance?

Społeczność międzynarodowa stoi w obliczu rozproszonego i ponadnarodowego zagrożenia epidemiologicznego, którego powaga i rozmiar wymagają obecnie niespotykanego poziomu interwencji. Na przestrzeni wieków ludzkość zmagała się z różnymi epidemia, co zawsze wiązało się z koniecznością kompleksowego działania na płaszczyźnie międzynarodowej. Zdaniem Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ epidemia spowodowana wirusem ebola, która wybuchła pod koniec 2013 r., stanowi szczególne zagrożenie dla pokoju i bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego, ponieważ zdobycze w obszarze budowania pokoju i rozwoju krajów najbardziej dotkniętych epidemią mogą zostać zaprzepaszczone. To z kolei podważa stabilność krajów najbardziej nią dotkniętych. Jeśli nie zostanie opanowana, to sytuacja taka może doprowadzić do wybuchu nowych niepokojów i napięć społecznych, pogorszenia klimatu politycznego, stygmatyzacji i wzmocnienia poczucia niepewności. Podjęta w tej sprawie przez Radę Bezpieczeństwa ONZ rezolucja ma wymiar historyczny, gdyż po raz pierwszy problem zdrowia publicznego został zaklasyfikowany jako zagrożenie dla pokoju i bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego. Stało się tak, mimo że mobilizacja międzynarodowa była spóźniona o kilka miesięcy, chociaż konieczność podjęcia działań była wówczas oczywista.The international community faces a fragmented and transnational epidemiological threat, the severity and extent of which currently require an unprecedented level of intervention. Over the centuries, mankind has been confronted with a variety of epidemics that have always required a comprehensive action at the international level. According to the UN Security Council, the outbreak of the Ebola virus at the end of 2013 poses a particular threat to international peace and security, as the peace-building and development achievements of the countries most affected by the epidemic are jeopardised and may end in vain or be lost altogether. This in turn undermines the stability of the countries most affected. If the disease is not brought under control, this situation might lead to a new unrest and social tensions, and worsening of the political climate, or stigmatisation and a higher sense of uncertainty in the region. The resolution adopted by the UN Security Council on this matter has a historic dimension, as it has for the first time classified a public health problem as a threat to international peace and security. This happened despite the fact that international mobilisation had been delayed by several months, despite the obvious urgent need for action

Criminal Liability for Crimes Against Humanity as a Problem of International Law

The article sets out the nature, the history and the general structure of the crime against humanity and provides a comprehensive analytical commentary of the elements of such crimes as a problem of international law. The contextual element determines that crimes against humanity involve either large-scale violence in relation to the number of victims or its extension over a broad geographic area (widespread), or a methodical type of violence (systematic). This excludes random, accidental or isolated acts of violence. In addition, Article 7(2) (a) of the Rome Statute determines that crimes against humanity must be committed in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit an attack. The plan or policy does not need to be explicitly stipulated or formally adopted and can, therefore, be inferred from the totality of the circumstances. In contrast with genocide, crimes against humanity do not need to target a specific group. Instead, the victim of the attack can be any civilian population, regardless of its affiliation or identity.The article sets out the nature, the history and the general structure of the crime against humanity and provides a comprehensive analytical commentary of the elements of such crimes as a problem of international law. The contextual element determines that crimes against humanity involve either large-scale violence in relation to the number of victims or its extension over a broad geographic area (widespread), or a methodical type of violence (systematic). This excludes random, accidental or isolated acts of violence. In addition, Article 7(2) (a) of the Rome Statute determines that crimes against humanity must be committed in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit an attack. The plan or policy does not need to be explicitly stipulated or formally adopted and can, therefore, be inferred from the totality of the circumstances. In contrast with genocide, crimes against humanity do not need to target a specific group. Instead, the victim of the attack can be any civilian population, regardless of its affiliation or identity

Prawo do równego traktowania w edukacji w świetle Konwencji o prawach osób niepełnosprawnych

This article examines the rights of persons with disabilities in the field of inclusive education based on fundamental human rights outlined in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Inclusive education is essential to achieve universal respect for the right to education, including persons with disabilities. Only inclusive education systems can offer persons with disabilities both quality education and the opportunity to improve their social situation. Inclusive education is not just about placing students with disabilities in mainstream educational institutions; it also means making them feel welcome, respected and valued. The values that underlie the concept of inclusive education reinforce the capacity of everyone to achieve their goals and to conceive of diversity as a source of enrichment. Students with disabilities need appropriate support to participate in the education system on an equal basis with other students. Ordinary educational institutions must provide students with disabilities with a learning environment that maximizes academic progress and socialization

The Issues of Secession in the Process of the Rise and Fall of States in the Light of International Law

The aims of this contribution is to check the validity of the old theory, which goes back to Jellinek but is still dominant, which states that secession as well as the process of forming a new state, fall under the scope of a “simple fact” and thereby escape through definition to any law of way. According to this theory, secession is not a question of “Law” but a question of pure fact, failure or success: if a secessionist movement succeeds in establishing a new effectiveness, that is to say, puts in place the “Constituent elements” of a state, a new state is born. It is interesting to observe that with the phenomenon of the rise or the collapse of States, from the global perspective of international order and especially from the point of view of international law, the States concerned are, in practice, not simply left to their fate. On the contrary, the rise or the collapse of a State anywhere in the world is seen as a matter of concern for the international community, since the international system as a whole is felt to be affected. In such cases, international reactions have not been manifested primarily through the States as such, either indi-vidually or together. Basically, these reactions had to cope with the dilemma of choos-ing between two fundamental principles of legitimacy in international law: on the one hand, the sovereignty and equality of States and, on the other, the right of peoples to self-determination

The cooperation between the African Union and the European Union in the field of migration and collective security as an absolute imperative

At a time when Africa is strengthening its attractiveness, acquiring its own story and arousing the interest of new partners, and when Europe is going through an important economic and institutional crisis, what can the new bases for cooperation between the European Union and the African Union be? The Abidjan summit in November 2017 offered an opportunity to reflect on the achievements of bi-regional cooperation between Africa and Europe in the field of migration, peace and security. It emphasized the priority of education, support for sustainable and inclusive development, and multi-sector cooperation, stating that all of them be carried out within the framework of horizontal cooperation favouring reciprocal Africa-European Union contributions. However, one must be aware of the constraints, weighing on both partners, which hinder implementation of the agreed strategies

The Binding Force of International Legal Standards in the Face of the Recurrent Practice of Soft Law

Soft law facilitates cooperation between international actors. Already, the elaboration of international law is a matter of shared competence between States, traditionally recognized as the only subjects of international law, international organizations and the typical actors. International organizations have initiated a movement towards the adoption of flexible forms of regulation of international relations. They will profoundly change the way in which international law will be created and presented to the recipients of the rule of law. From the very beginning of their activities, organizations preferred a method other than hierarchical command to encourage international cooperation. They will develop a consistent legal technique, aimed at persuading and not compelling their Member States to adopt conduct consistent with the legally binding standard. This article proposes a reflection on soft law and the results of its increasing use in international practices

Prevalence and characteristics of accidental perineal tears during childbirth in a communal medical center in Guinea-Conakry: a cross-sectional study

Background: Prevalence studies are still rare in sub-Saharan Africa on perineal tears. We conducted this cross-sectional study in a communal hospital in Guinea-Conakry, with the objective of this study was to determining the prevalence and characteristics of post-obstetric perineal lesions.Methods: All deliveries between March 1st and August 31st, 2014 were reviewed. We included in the analysis all the single deliveries with perineal tears. The Anglo-Saxon classification of perineal tears was used.Results: The prevalence of perineal tears was 5.7% with 5.4% benign lesions and 0.3% severe lesions. We did not register 4th degree lesions. The average age of parturient was 22 years. The majority (96.6%) of parturient had a history of genital mutilation and perineal scarring (60.3%).Conclusions: This prevalence appear low compared to those reported in other studies in Africa and point to the need for more sophisticated studies to have a better estimate of the prevalence of perineal tears in Guinea-Conakry

Enjeux et Défis de l’Intercommunalité au Sénégal : Observation à Partir du Niombato, Région de Fatick

Cet article se propose de traiter des enjeux et défis de l’intercommunalité au Sénégal, en particulier dans le Niombato. Ce territoire, essentiellement rural, regroupe les communes de Toubacouta, Karang Poste, Keur Saloum Diané, Keur Samba Gueye et Nioro Alassane Tall constituant l’arrondissement de Toubacouta, dans le département de Foundiougne, région de Fatick. Il est une belle illustration des enjeux de l’intercommunalité au Sénégal, où la réforme de l’Acte 3 de la décentralisation initiée en décembre 2013 fait de la cohérence et de la gouvernance territoriale des outils de la viabilité et du développement des territoires. La méthodologie combine recherche documentaire, enquêtes de terrain à partir de guides d’entretien et un questionnaire adressé aux ménages et des observations participantes. Les résultats font, d’abord, ressortir la pertinence du Niombato comme cadre d’intercommunalité compte tenu de son caractère homogène et de ses interdépendances territoriales avec l’existence de fortes interactions spatiales, sociales et économiques. Ensuite, l’étude révèle l’existence d’un cadre formel d’intercommunalité qui traduit la perception des enjeux de la part des acteurs territoriaux et de leurs partenaires de l’intérêt de se doter d’un outil de gouvernance territoriale. Enfin, les résultats soulignent l’existence de plusieurs défis politiques, juridiques, techniques et financiers qui plombent la fonctionnalité de la structure intercommunale. L’étude conclue ainsi à la nécessité d’une volonté politique des acteurs territoriaux, notamment l’Etat et les collectivités territoriales pour relever les défis et faire de l’intercommunalité du Niombato un outil de gouvernance et de développement territorial.     This article looks at the issues and challenges of intercommunality in Senegal, with particular reference to Niombato. This essentially rural territory comprises the communes of Toubacouta, Karang Poste, Keur Saloum Diané, Keur Samba Gueye and Nioro Alassane Tall, which make up the Toubacouta arrondissement, in the Foundiougne department, Fatick region. It is a fine illustration of the challenges of intercommunality in Senegal, where the Act 3 decentralization reform initiated in December 2013 makes territorial coherence and governance tools for the viability and development of territories. The methodology combines documentary research, field surveys using interview guides and a questionnaire addressed to households, and participant observations. The results highlight the relevance of Niombato as a framework for intercommunality, given its homogeneous nature and territorial interdependence, with strong spatial, social and economic interactions. Secondly, the study reveals the existence of a formal framework for intercommunality, reflecting the perception of the issues at stake on the part of territorial players and their partners, as well as the interest in adopting a territorial governance tool. Finally, the results highlight the existence of a number of political, legal, technical and financial challenges to the functionality of the intercommunal structure. The study thus concludes that the political will of territorial players, in particular the State and local authorities, is needed to meet the challenges and make the Niombato intermunicipality a tool for governance and territorial development

Enjeux et Défis de l’Intercommunalité au Sénégal : Observation à Partir de l’Intercommunalité de Niombato

              Cet article se propose de traiter des enjeux et défis de l’intercommunalité au Sénégal, en particulier dans le Niombato. Ce territoire essentiellement rural regroupe les communes de Toubacouta, Karang Poste, Keur Saloum Diané, Keur Samba Gueye et Nioro Alassane Tall constituant l’arrondissement de Toubacouta, dans le département de Foundiougne, région de Fatick. Il est une belle illustration des enjeux de l’intercommunalité au Sénégal, où la réforme de l’Acte 3 de la décentralisation initiée en décembre 2013 fait de la cohérence et de la gouvernance territoriales des outils de la viabilité et du développement des territoires. La méthodologie combine recherche documentaire, enquêtes de terrain par guides d’entretien et questionnaires ménages et des observations participantes. Les résultats font, d’abord, ressortir la pertinence du Niombato comme cadre d’intercommunalité compte tenu de son caractère homogène et de ses interdépendances territoriales avec l’existence de fortes interactions spatiales, sociales et économiques. Ensuite, l’étude révèle l’existence d’un cadre formel d’intercommunalité qui traduit la perception des enjeux de la part des acteurs territoriaux et de leurs partenaires de l’intérêt de se doter d’un outil de gouvernance territoriale. Enfin, les résultats soulignent l’existence de plusieurs défis politiques juridiques, techniques et financiers qui plombent la fonctionnalité de la structure intercommunale. L’étude conclue ainsi à la nécessité d’une volonté politique des acteurs territoriaux, notamment l’Etat et les collectivités territoriales pour relever les défis et faire de l’intercommunalité du Niombato un outil de gouvernance et de développement territorial.     This article looks at the issues and challenges of intercommunality in Senegal, and in particular in Niombato. This essentially rural territory includes the communes of Toubacouta, Karang Poste, Keur Saloum Diané, Keur Samba Gueye and Nioro Alassane Tall, which make up the arrondissement of Toubacouta, in the department of Foundiougne, Fatick region. It is a fine illustration of the challenges of intercommunality in Senegal, where the Act 3 decentralization reform initiated in December 2013 makes territorial coherence and governance tools for the viability and development of territories. The methodology combines documentary research, field surveys using interview guides and household questionnaires, and participant observation. The results highlight the relevance of Niombato as a framework for intercommunality, given its homogeneous nature and territorial interdependence, with strong spatial, social and economic interactions. Secondly, the study reveals the existence of a formal framework for intercommunality, reflecting the perception of the issues at stake on the part of territorial players and their partners, as well as the interest in adopting a territorial governance tool. Finally, the results highlight the existence of a number of political, legal, technical and financial challenges to the functionality of the intercommunal structure. The study concludes that there is a need for political will on the part of local players, in particular the State and local authorities, to meet the challenges and make the Niombato intermunicipality a tool for governance and territorial development