223 research outputs found
Complex Networks and Symmetry I: A Review
In this review we establish various connections between complex networks and
symmetry. While special types of symmetries (e.g., automorphisms) are studied
in detail within discrete mathematics for particular classes of deterministic
graphs, the analysis of more general symmetries in real complex networks is far
less developed. We argue that real networks, as any entity characterized by
imperfections or errors, necessarily require a stochastic notion of invariance.
We therefore propose a definition of stochastic symmetry based on graph
ensembles and use it to review the main results of network theory from an
unusual perspective. The results discussed here and in a companion paper show
that stochastic symmetry highlights the most informative topological properties
of real networks, even in noisy situations unaccessible to exact techniques.Comment: Final accepted versio
Detecting spatial homogeneity in the world trade web with Detrended Fluctuation Analysis
In a spatially embedded network, that is a network where nodes can be
uniquely determined in a system of coordinates, links' weights might be
affected by metric distances coupling every pair of nodes (dyads). In order to
assess to what extent metric distances affect relationships (link's weights) in
a spatially embedded network, we propose a methodology based on DFA (Detrended
Fluctuation Analysis). DFA is a well developed methodology to evaluate
autocorrelations and estimate long-range behaviour in time series. We argue it
can be further extended to spatially ordered series in order to assess
autocorrelations in values. A scaling exponent of 0.5 (uncorrelated data) would
thereby signal a perfect homogeneous space embedding the network. We apply the
proposed methodology to the World Trade Web (WTW) during the years 1949-2000
and we find, in some contrast with predictions of gravity models, a declining
influence of distances on trading relationships.Comment: 15 pages, 7 figure
The Prism of Elasticity in Rebound Effect Modelling:An Insight from the Freight Transport Sector
If the rebound effect is to be considered a major obstacle to sustainable freight transport, then action and timely policy must be made in advance. This, however, requires a theoretical understanding of the nature of the rebound effect and an empirical grasp of its underlying mechanism. Elasticity is the centrepiece of current models on the rebound effect (or Jevons paradox). Although elasticity is a metric of indisputable usefulness for empirical purposes, it may be misleading when applied to the complex rebound effect. Drawing on the parallel case of the ‘distance puzzle’ in international economics, it will be shown how elasticity can be misinterpreted or how it can misdirect an investigation of the phenomenon by following a predetermined mindset. This particular bias is shown to widen in the long term and evolving systems in which the elasticity metric continues to output a constant number, eliciting a persistent effect. Drawing on previous research, an alternative approach to studying the rebound effect based on complex network theory and statistical mechanics of networks will be described. It will be shown how the interplay between spatial and non-spatial effects in freight transport networks can inform us about the evolution of the effect of distances on trade relationships, upon which a new metric for the rebound effect can be built
Multiplexity and multireciprocity in directed multiplexes
Real-world multi-layer networks feature nontrivial dependencies among links
of different layers. Here we argue that, if links are directed, dependencies
are twofold. Besides the ordinary tendency of links of different layers to
align as the result of `multiplexity', there is also a tendency to anti-align
as the result of what we call `multireciprocity', i.e. the fact that links in
one layer can be reciprocated by \emph{opposite} links in a different layer.
Multireciprocity generalizes the scalar definition of single-layer reciprocity
to that of a square matrix involving all pairs of layers. We introduce
multiplexity and multireciprocity matrices for both binary and weighted
multiplexes and validate their statistical significance against maximum-entropy
null models that filter out the effects of node heterogeneity. We then perform
a detailed empirical analysis of the World Trade Multiplex (WTM), representing
the import-export relationships between world countries in different
commodities. We show that the WTM exhibits strong multiplexity and
multireciprocity, an effect which is however largely encoded into the degree or
strength sequences of individual layers. The residual effects are still
significant and allow to classify pairs of commodities according to their
tendency to be traded together in the same direction and/or in opposite ones.
We also find that the multireciprocity of the WTM is significantly lower than
the usual reciprocity measured on the aggregate network. Moreover, layers with
low (high) internal reciprocity are embedded within sets of layers with
comparably low (high) mutual multireciprocity. This suggests that, in the WTM,
reciprocity is inherent to groups of related commodities rather than to
individual commodities. We discuss the implications for international trade
research focusing on product taxonomies, the product space, and
fitness/complexity metrics.Comment: 20 pages, 8 figure
Interactions between financial and environmental networks in OECD countries
We analyse a multiplex of networks between OECD countries during the decade
2002-2010, which consists of five financial layers, given by foreign direct
investment, equity securities, short-term, long-term and total debt securities,
and five environmental layers, given by emissions of N O x, P M 10 SO 2, CO 2
equivalent and the water footprint associated with international trade. We
present a new measure of cross-layer correlations between flows in different
layers based on reciprocity. For the assessment of results, we implement a null
model for this measure based on the exponential random graph theory. We find
that short-term financial flows are more correlated with environmental flows
than long-term investments. Moreover, the correlations between reverse
financial and environmental flows (i.e. flows of different layers going in
opposite directions) are generally stronger than correlations between synergic
flows (flows going in the same direction). This suggests a trade-off between
financial and environmental layers, where, more financialised countries display
higher correlations between outgoing financial flows and incoming environmental
flows from lower financialised countries, which could have important policy
implications. Five countries are identified as hubs in this finance-environment
multiplex: The United States, France, Germany, Belgium-Luxembourg and the
United Kingdom.Comment: Supplementary Information provide
The role of distances in the World Trade Web
In the economic literature, geographic distances are considered fundamental
factors to be included in any theoretical model whose aim is the quantification
of the trade between countries. Quantitatively, distances enter into the
so-called gravity models that successfully predict the weight of non-zero trade
flows. However, it has been recently shown that gravity models fail to
reproduce the binary topology of the World Trade Web. In this paper a different
approach is presented: the formalism of exponential random graphs is used and
the distances are treated as constraints, to be imposed on a previously chosen
ensemble of graphs. Then, the information encoded in the geographical distances
is used to explain the binary structure of the World Trade Web, by testing it
on the degree-degree correlations and the reciprocity structure. This leads to
the definition of a novel null model that combines spatial and non-spatial
effects. The effectiveness of spatial constraints is compared to that of
nonspatial ones by means of the Akaike Information Criterion and the Bayesian
Information Criterion. Even if it is commonly believed that the World Trade Web
is strongly dependent on the distances, what emerges from our analysis is that
distances do not play a crucial role in shaping the World Trade Web binary
structure and that the information encoded into the reciprocity is far more
useful in explaining the observed patterns.Comment: Preprint, accepted for SITIS 2012 (http://www.sitis-conf.org/). Final
version to be published by IEEE Computer Society as conference proceeding
On the relationship between energy efficiency and complexity: Insight on the causality chain
The relationship between the energy efficiency, energy density and complexity level of the system is here addressed from both thermodynamic and evolutionary perspectives. A case study from economic systems is presented to show that, contrary to widespread opinion, energy efficiency is responsible for energy growth and the complexity leap. This article further examines to what extent complexity, on a historical time scale, may evolve to counterbalance conservative effects brought about by energy efficiency. We analyze structural complexity growth by four different paradigms. An evolutionary pattern is then proposed that may encompass the broad dynamics underlying complexity growth. This evolutionary pattern rests on the hypothesis that thermodynamic evolutionary systems are featured from an ever growing influx of energy driven into the system by self-catalytic processes, which must find its way through the constrains of the system. The system initially disposes of the energy by expanding, in extent and in number of components, up to saturation due to inner or outer constraints. The two counteractive forces, constraints and growing energy flux, expose the systems to new gradients. Every new gradient upon the system represents a symmetry rupture in components' space. By exploring a new gradient, the system imposes further restrictions on its components and increases its overall degree of freedom. © 2008 WIT Press
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