Why Do Countries Matter So Much for Corporate Governance?

This paper develops and tests a model of how country characteristics, such as legal protections for minority investors, and the level of economic and financial development, influence firms' costs and benefits in implementing measures to improve their own governance and transparency. The model focuses on an entrepreneur who needs to raise funds to finance the firm's investment opportunities and who decides whether or not to invest in better firm-level governance mechanisms to reduce agency costs. We show that, for a given level of country investor protection, the incentives to adopt better governance mechanisms at the firm level increase with a country's financial and economic development. When economic and financial development is poor, the incentives to improve firm-level governance are low because outside finance is expensive and the adoption of better governance mechanisms is expensive. Using firm-level data on international corporate governance and transparency ratings for a large sample of firms from around the world, we find evidence consistent with this prediction. Specifically, we show that (1) almost all of the variation in governance ratings across firms in less developed countries is attributable to country characteristics rather than firm characteristics typically used to explain governance choices, (2) firm characteristics explain more of the variation in governance ratings in more developed countries, and (3) access to global capital markets sharpens firm incentives for better governance, but decreases the importance of home-country legal protections of minority investors.

Responsiveness-informed multiple imputation and inverse probability-weighting in cohort studies with missing data that are non-monotone or not missing at random

Population-based cohort studies are invaluable to health research because of the breadth of data collection over time, and the representativeness of their samples. However, they are especially prone to missing data, which can compromise the validity of analyses when data are not missing at random. Having many waves of data collection presents opportunity for participants' responsiveness to be observed over time, which may be informative about missing data mechanisms and thus useful as an auxiliary variable. Modern approaches to handling missing data such as multiple imputation and maximum likelihood can be difficult to implement with the large numbers of auxiliary variables and large amounts of non-monotone missing data that occur in cohort studies. Inverse probability-weighting can be easier to implement but conventional wisdom has stated that it cannot be applied to non-monotone missing data. This paper describes two methods of applying inverse probability-weighting to non-monotone missing data, and explores the potential value of including measures of responsiveness in either inverse probability-weighting or multiple imputation. Simulation studies are used to compare methods and demonstrate that responsiveness in longitudinal studies can be used to mitigate bias induced by missing data, even when data are not missing at random

Italian Football in an Era of Globalisation: Neo-Patrimony, New Localism and Decline

Italy and Italian football have captured the imagination of writers and fans across the globe. The Italia ’90 world cup reaffirmed Italy’s standing as a world power in football. It also marked a turning point in global sport. At the end of the twentieth century, global sport underwent a period of profound transformation. In parallel to similar process taking place elsewhere in politics, economics and society, sport was entering a period of de-regulation and commodification, which impacted national leagues and local fans. Despite the intensification of transnational global networks resulting from de-regulation, individual nation states still hold significant power. Likewise, national leagues are still significant to football clubs despite the growth of global markets and transnational competitions. Yet these global processes of commodification and de-regulation have impacted fans in vastly different ways. This thesis provides analysis of Italian football in relation to the impact of the changing global political economy. Through analysis of the Italian political economy, it will identify the complex personal networks operating across Italian business, politics and football. This has witnessed the emergence of a number of significant charismatic leaders who operate across these networks and utilise patronage to gain an advantage. These patrimonial networks were initially successful, as Italian football quickly adapted to the changing global economy. However, it has not capitalised on this early success. Italian clubs are struggling financially in relation to their European peers. This has been compounded by a series of crises have impacted Italian football. The crises within Italian society and football have impacted the engagement of fans. Political engagement has fallen and this is replicated in the stadiums. The historical failure of the Italian state to impose itself has been further undermined by globalisation processes. Traditional regional identities have been reinforced as globalisation has further weakened the nation state. Changes to the patterns of consumption have combined with these traditional identities and has led to a greater particularisation in society. Individualism and regionalism have grown, and this has led to a decline in engagement with wider public life and social capital. One aspect of this decline has been demonstrated by several high profile violent incidents, and deaths at Italian matches. The impact of this decline will be addressed in relation to the formation of supporters’ groups and the match-day experiences of fans. Ultimately this decline is financially affecting the clubs which further contributes to the overall crisis within Italian football

Crusaders and spartans: The performance of masculinity at the Euro 2012 Championships

Mark Doidge is an early career academic whose research and teaching primarily focus on globalisation, performance and sport. In this post he discusses the construction of homogenous national masculine culture in the context of the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship

Episodic Memory, Theta-Activity and Schizophrenia

People with schizophrenia are known to have difficulties with episodic memory (EM). The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between theta-power and: i) behavioural measures of EM performance, ii) event- related potential (ERP) indices of recollection and, iii) measures of schizophrenia symptomatology. In doing so, the aim was to gain a better understanding of the basic neural mechanisms that contribute to successful EM performance, and how these may differ for people with schizophrenia. The present investigation adopted an endophenotypic approach and collected measures of schizotypy from student participants to minimise patient factors that can confound interpretations. Fifty- four participants were asked to complete a reality-monitoring exclusion EM paradigm whilst electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected. Measures of theta-power and ERPs were time-locked to words presented during the retrieval phase. There was a significant positive correlation between theta-power over Fz between 600-1000ms post-stimulus presentation and estimates of recollection in the imagine condition as well as a significant negative correlation between these measures of theta-power for perceive items and ERP indices of recollection for imagine items. There was also a significant positive correlation between measures of frontal theta-power in the imagine condition and negative schizotypy. The epoch employed means it is likely these measures of theta- power reflect processes contributing to the content-specific retrieval of imagined items, and post-retrieval processes acting in service of differentiating imagined items in EM. Results are discussed in terms of suggestions for interventions and directions for future research

Football Italia

This book is available as open access through the Bloomsbury Open Access programme and is available on www.bloomsburycollections.com. Football has undergone a period of transformation over the last thirty years. Despite these global processes, different national leagues have adapted in different ways. After an initial period of success directly after Italia ’90, Italian football has gone through a period of sustained crisis. It has been blighted by financial mismanagement, corruption scandals and fan violence. This has impacted Italy's ability to compete on a global stage. Football Italia accounts for the development of Italian football in relation to the wider global transformations impacting football and addresses the reasons for Serie A's initial success and current malaise. Theoretically, this book locates Italian football within the wider power network of the state and how this has impacted political engagement. After an historical overview of the Italian political economy, Football Italia highlights how football is part of the wider political network. Football clubs are owned by powerful businessmen (and they are all men) who are also politicians. This centralisation of power within a small hegemonic group inhibits change. Within this broader structure, wider corruption scandals continue; from regular match-fixing scandals to doping. Meanwhile, stadiums are crumbling and police over-aggressive. It is within this context that we must place the fans. Both the ultras and supporters who attend official supporters’ clubs are disaffected and without the power to change the status quo. Consequently, Italian football has been in decline throughout the 21st century

Factors influencing Grade 7 teachers' implementation of outcomes-based approaches in the national curriculum when teaching 'human reproduction'

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2014.Outcomes-based education was introduced into South Africa almost 20 years ago amidst much controversy. During the period of my study, a modified version of the outcomes-based curriculum was in use, i.e. the Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9. In this curriculum, critical and learning outcomes were described and a learner-centred approach advocated which would enable learners to achieve the outcomes. Human reproduction was introduced as one of the content areas in the senior phase of the Natural Sciences. Human reproduction is a sensitive but very relevant topic in South Africa where HIV/AIDS, teenage pregnancy and child abuse are prevalent and so was selected as a Grade 7 topic in one educational district of Gauteng. In my study, I was interested in finding out what factors influenced Grade 7 teachers' implementation of outcomes-based approaches when teaching Human Reproduction. I explored the use of learner-centred approaches and the extent to which the critical and Natural Sciences learning outcomes could be achieved through these approaches. Firstly I wanted to know to what extent Grade 7 teachers used outcomes-based and learner-centred approaches when teaching human reproduction. Secondly I was interested in the factors that influenced the teaching of human reproduction. Thirdly I set out to find which factors affected the use of outcomes-based and learner-centred approaches during the teaching of human reproduction. Lastly the influence of teachers' behavioural, normative and control beliefs on their teaching of human reproduction in outcomes-based and learner-centred ways were of interest. My theoretical framework took into account the above-mentioned factors and beliefs about the influence of these factors and their possible impact on teaching human reproduction in outcomes-based and learner-centred ways. My research involved a workshop for Natural Sciences teachers on the teaching of human reproduction to Grade 7's, followed by a survey. Forty teachers completed the survey questionnaire in which they recorded their perceptions of the expected influence of the learners, the learning environment and support structures, as well as teachers' beliefs, on the teaching of human reproduction. Ten of these teachers participated as the case studies in my multiple case study, forming a convenience sample. I used a mixed methods approach in my investigation, starting with the survey questionnaire and then narrowing my focus to the ten case study teachers and becoming a participant observer in their classes. I recorded my data in field notes and as digital recordings of class discussions and when teachers had completed teaching human reproduction, I interviewed them. The data from the questionnaires, interview and lesson transcripts and field notes were analysed and conclusions drawn. I used profiles to assess the achievement of the critical and learning outcomes by each teacher and to assess the extent to which each teacher used learner-centred approaches when teaching human reproduction. A cross case analysis enabled me to compare the teachers with regard to each outcome and learner-centred feature. Some quantitative data from my surveys and mostly qualitative data from my observations and interviews were used to explore the influence of factors internal to the teacher, i.e. personal and professional factors, and those external to the teacher such as the learners, the iii learning environment and support structures. I also used the qualitative data to identify the influence of behavioural, normative and control beliefs about teaching human reproduction in outcomes-based ways on practice. My findings were that all teachers taught towards some outcomes and used some learner-centred approaches and these differed amongst teachers. The profiles enabled me to identify overall strengths of each teacher as an outcomes-based and learner-centred teacher, and the cross-case analysis indicated which outcomes were being met by learners through the teaching and learning approaches used. I found that the learning environment, and in particular the provision of or lack of learning support materials and other resources, impacted on the achievement of the outcomes. The school principals, colleagues, parents and friends proved to be mostly very supportive of the teaching of human reproduction and the need for strong communities of practice became evident. The choice of language was seen as a dilemma but my findings pointed to the use of home language or preferably code-switching to promote conceptual development and the development of English language skills. Cultural beliefs of learners contributed to their prior knowledge, and religious beliefs influenced some teachers who promoted more conservative values amongst their learners regarding sexuality. The need for clear boundaries on what could be discussed in class became evident, to protect both the teacher and learner from intrusion into their personal lives. Group work was seen as an important approach for this sensitive topic, and the need for workshops to strengthen teacher's subject content knowledge and thus their self efficacy when teaching human reproduction and to build strong communities of practice in which ideas and experiences could be shared amongst teachers, was a finding of this study. In conclusion, some teachers were more outcomes-based and learner-centred than others. Subject content knowledge, choice of an appropriate language or language mix for teaching and learning, suitable learning environments with adequate learning support materials, school, district and parental support for the teaching of human reproduction all promoted a teachers sense of self-efficacy and made a difference to their teaching of human reproduction using outcomes-based approaches