Factors That Influence Rural Entrepreneurship: Case-Study Evidence from Torbat-E Heydarie, Kadkan District

Entrepreneurship is an important instrument in planning and realizing rural community development. Owing to current problems in societies, focusing on the rural entrepreneurship is of utmost importance. Entrepreneurship by creating new opportunities for employment and income plays an important role in improving socioeconomic conditions of villages. The aim of this study is to assess the factors influencing the development of rural entrepreneurship in a case study of villages in Torbat-e Heydarieh, Kadkan district. The research method was descriptive-analytic, and the data collection method was library and field studies. For data analysis, One-sample t-test with principal component analysis was used. The statistical population of the study was the villagers of Kadkan district of Torbat-e Heydarieh, from which 240 people were asked to complete a questionnaire. The validity of the questionnaire was evaluated using the Content and face validity with expert judgement. Reliability of the questionnaire was examined by Cronbach's alpha coefficient which for all studied domains was above 0.75 which indicated that questionnaire was satisfactory. The results indicated that economic factor was the most influential issue in the rural entrepreneurship. The results also showed that rural entrepreneurship provides a good context for creating jobs in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors and it is an important factor for achieving sustainable rural development

The Role of Water Resources Management in Reducing the Production Costs of Agricultural Products

In order to achieve the goals of sustainable agricultural and rural development, agricultural education is an issue that should be in base considered and researched according to the importance of the issue and its related challenges must be realistically analyzed, Since water is one of the effective factors in the agricultural sector that plays a vital role in the production of agricultural products. There are several factors for low water productivity in the country, one of which can be considered non-optimal and unplanned use of water. It is clear that by increasing the level of awareness of farmers about the type of management of agricultural water resources it is possible to reduce current expenses and then to achieve high productivity and increasing income from crops and orchards. Therefore, in this study, the optimal management of water and reduction of production costs in the agricultural sector in Zabrkhan county of Neishabour city has been studied. The research method in this article was a descriptive- analytical method and the data was collected by two methods of library and field methods. The results show that the production cost per hectare of all crops in lands under water resources management is less than unmanaged lands. This rate varied between 3.4 to 16.8 percent. If we associate this reduction in production cost with product efficiency and use the cost per kilogram of production as a criterion, the reduction will be 165.2% for irrigated wheat, 150% for irrigated barley, 106.8% fodder corn and 54.4% for garden products. Therefore, according to the research results, the research hypothesis is confirmed

Factores que influyen en el espíritu empresarial rural: evidencia de estudios de caso de Torbat-E Heydarie, distrito de Kadkan

Entrepreneurship is an important instrument in planning and realizing rural community development. Owing to current problems in societies, focusing on the rural entrepreneurship is of utmost importance. Entrepreneurship by creating new opportunities for employment and income plays an important role in improving socioeconomic conditions of villages. The aim of this study is to assess the factors influencing the development of rural entrepreneurship in a case study of villages in Torbat-e Heydarieh, Kadkan district. The research method was descriptive-analytic, and the data collection method was library and field studies. For data analysis, One-sample t-test with principal component analysis was used. The statistical population of the study was the villagers of Kadkan district of Torbat-e Heydarieh, from which 240 people were asked to complete a questionnaire. The validity of the questionnaire was evaluated using the Content and face validity with expert judgement. Reliability of the questionnaire was examined by Cronbach's alpha coefficient which for all studied domains was above 0.75 which indicated that questionnaire was satisfactory. The results indicated that economic factor was the most influential issue in the rural entrepreneurship. The results also showed that rural entrepreneurship provides a good context for creating jobs in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors and it is an important factor for achieving sustainable rural development.El espíritu empresarial es un instrumento importante en la planificación y realización del desarrollo de la comunidad rural. Debido a los problemas actuales de las sociedades, es de suma importancia centrarse en el espíritu empresarial rural. El espíritu empresarial mediante la creación de nuevas oportunidades de empleo e ingresos juega un papel importante en la mejora de las condiciones socioeconómicas de las aldeas. El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar los factores que influyen en el desarrollo del espíritu empresarial rural en un estudio de caso de pueblos de Torbat-e Heydarieh, distrito de Kadkan. El método de investigación fue descriptivo-analítico, y el método de recolección de datos fue biblioteca y estudios de campo. Para el análisis de datos, se utilizó la prueba t de una muestra con análisis de componentes principales. La población estadística del estudio fueron los habitantes del distrito de Kadkan de Torbat-e Heydarieh, de los cuales se pidió a 240 personas que completaran un cuestionario. La validez del cuestionario se evaluó mediante el contenido y la validez aparente con juicio de expertos. La confiabilidad del cuestionario se examinó mediante el coeficiente alfa de Cronbach, que para todos los dominios estudiados fue superior a 0,75, lo que indicó que el cuestionario era satisfactorio. Los resultados indicaron que el factor económico fue el tema más influyente en el emprendimiento rural. Los resultados también mostraron que el espíritu empresarial rural proporciona un buen contexto para la creación de puestos de trabajo en los sectores agrícolas y no agrícolas y es un factor importante para lograr el desarrollo rural sostenible

The impact of economic incentives on population instability in rural settlements (case study: Khoosf county)

Hoy en día, la inestabilidad de la población es uno de los problemas más importantes en los asentamientos rurales de Irán a pesar de la planificación, el gasto y las grandes inversiones. Dado que la migración rural es por razones lógicas, debemos buscar formas de ralentizar el proceso de migración a las ciudades o reemplazar a los migrantes rurales de los pueblos centrales a pueblos pequeños y aldeas centrales que tienen más instalaciones y servicios y evitan las consecuencias de la migración que impactan negativamente en la población. estructuras económicas de ciudades y pueblos. La investigación se aplica en términos de propósito y naturaleza y es descriptivo-analítico, en términos de metodología. La población consistió en 41 aldeas sobre 100 poblaciones con 4226 hogares y 13892 poblaciones que de acuerdo a la distribución geográfica, categorización poblacional y declive poblacional durante 2006 y 2016, se seleccionó como muestra el 20% de ellos (8 aldeas) con 796 hogares. Se distribuyó un total de 259 cuestionarios (basados en la fórmula de Cochran) entre los hogares de la muestra según el método aleatorio simple. En este estudio, se utilizó la prueba t de una muestra para analizar los datos cuantitativos y la prueba de Friedman para clasificar el efecto de los incentivos económicos sobre la inestabilidad de la población. Con base en los resultados del presente estudio, se puede concluir que los factores económicos (desempleo y bajos ingresos) y la falta de instalaciones y servicios tienen la mayor relación con la inestabilidad de la población en los asentamientos Khoosf

Assessing the factors affecting the development of rural entrepreneurship: A case study of villages in Torbat-e Heydarieh, Kadkan district

Entrepreneurship is one of the most important tools for planning and achieving the development of rural communities. Today, due to the problems in these communities, attention and emphasis on rural entrepreneurship is very important; because entrepreneurship can with creation an effective role in improving the economic and living conditions of villages by creating new employment and income opportunities. This article has been written with the aim of evaluating the factors affecting the development of rural entrepreneurship in a case study of villages in Torbat-e Heydarieh, Kadkan district. The research method was descriptive-analytical and the data collection method was library and field. One-sample t-test with principal component analysis was used to analyze the data. The statistical population of the study was the villagers of Kadkan district of Torbat-e Heydarieh, from which 240 people were selected as a sample and they were asked to complete a questionnaire. To assess the validity of the questionnaire, the content and face validity technique was used with the judgment of experts on research questions. The reliability of the research instrument was determined using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which is above 0.75 for all dimensions and indicates the desirable capability of the questionnaire. The results showed that among the factors affecting entrepreneurship, the economic factor is the most influential factor in the study area. The results also showed that rural entrepreneurship is one of the suitable fields for creating employment in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors and one of the important factors in achieving sustainable development in rural areas.

Exercise and macrophage phenotype switch: The role of myokine meteorin-like protein (METRNL)

Dear Editor-in-ChiefOriginally, macrophages are known for the critical role of phagocytosis in innate immunity (Yan & Hansson, 2007). They have also been shown to play crucial roles in the homeostasis of white adipose tissue (WAT) and skeletal muscle (SKM) tissue (Baht et al., 2020; Rao et al., 2014). Macrophage plasticity is an important hallmark enabling them to respond to altered settings (Shapouri‐Moghaddam et al., 2018). In response to those changing environments, macrophages demonstrate different polarizations of the classic/proinflammatory M1 phenotype and an alternative/anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype (Shapouri‐Moghaddam et al., 2018). Obesity, as an adipose tissue’s milieu-altering stimulant, shifts the macrophage phenotype to the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype, with the resultant consequences of inflamed adipose tissue and insulin resistance, showing that adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) are central players in adipose tissue homeostasis (Goh, Goh, & Abbasi, 2016). On the other hand, exercise has been well documented to reduce obesity-induced adipose tissue (AT) inflammation. Exercise-induced mechanisms through which AT inflammation is attenuated, include a combination of: i) a decrease in inflammatory adipokines production, ii) a reduction of toll-like receptors (TLR2 and TLR4) expression in immune cells, and iii) an increase in the production of muscle-secreted factors called myokines (Abbasi et al., 2014; Pedersen & Febbraio, 2008). The latter mechanism, muscle-fat crosstalk, is mediated by myokines to deliver exercise-induced health benefits (Pedersen & Febbraio, 2008). Basically, exercise, in a tissue-specific manner, upregulates lipid oxidation-related genes and proteins which in turn decrease oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in the inflamed AT (Ruschke et al., 2010). In parallel, exercise-induced muscle contraction triggers the production of genes and proteins in SKM that are responsible for the secretion of molecules called myokines to mediate the beneficial effects of exercise (Pedersen & Febbraio, 2008). Meterorin-like protein (Metrnl) is a newly-identified adipomyokine with immune-regulatory hallmarks (Rao et al., 2014). Metrnl was originally identified as a myokine with immune regulatory functions in AT (Rao et al., 2014). Exercise-induced increases in blood Metrnl levels act as a signaling molecule to recruit eosinophils into AT, driving the M2-phenotype of ATMs, and finally resulting in the browning of white adipose tissue (BWT) (Rao et al., 2014). Metrnl has been shown to upregulate the production of type 2 immunity anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13 which in turn activate ATM’s M2 phenotype in a STAT6-dependent pathway in macrophages in animal models (Rao et al., 2014). Exercise-induced Metrnl is correlated with its increased blood levels which is associated with elevated whole-body energy expenditure via stimulating the thermogenesis process in AT (Rao et al., 2014). Based on this evidence, Metrnl-mediated ATMs phenotype shift is related to improved metabolic health in obesity, suggesting Metrnl as a possible therapeutic agent in metabolic challenges.In the study of Rao et al., given the ability of Metrnl in recruiting type 2 immunity, and that type II immunity has characteristics in repairing processes like those in damaged SKM, it was hypothesized that Metrnl might also play roles in regenerating damaged SKM. In this regard, in a recently published study by Baht et al., Metrnl was described as a necessary regulator for SKM regeneration process (Baht et al., 2020). Baht et al’s study’s finding was that Metrnl is induced upon SKM-damaging exercise. In that study, SKM-derived Metrnl was delineated as dispensable for the regeneration of damaged SKM, whereas macrophage-derived Metrnl was shown as a critical coordinator for SKM regeneration (Baht et al., 2020). Macrophage-derived Metrnl, in an auto-/paracrine manner, activates STAT3 which in turn promotes an anti-inflammatory function and induction of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which activates muscle progenitors to help myogenesis (Baht et al., 2020). Similar to its actions in AT, Metrnl exerts its physiological functions through macrophage accretion and phenotypical shift in SKM. Of note, in the study of Rao et al. Metrnl was established as a molecule that is selectively expressed in different tissues based on physiologic stimuli with being expressed in AT upon cold exposure and in SKM upon exercise (Rao et al., 2014). With regard to this, in the study of Baht et al. it was shown that there was no Metrnl expression in myogenic cells after injury and that mice with Metrnl silenced in myofibers exhibited a normal phenotype in terms of muscle regeneration while macrophages were the main Metrnl-secreting cells in SKM injury (Baht et al., 2020). There are a handful of studies reporting Metrnl responsiveness to SKM-damaging exercise protocols like unaccustomed resistance exercise (Baht et al., 2020; Rao et al., 2014), downhill running exercise (Alizadeh & Alizadeh, 2021; Rao et al., 2014) in both animal and human subjects. These observations prompt questions regarding the molecular mechanisms that control the selective expression of Metrnl molecule by different cell types according to tissue homeostasis: myofibers after exercise versus macrophages after damage.In summary, this letter addressed two outstanding studies of Rao et al., and Baht et al., describing Metrnl mechanisms of action in both AT and SKM physiology. Metrnl actions are mediated via macrophage phenotype switch (MPS) in AT and SKM. In AT, Metrnl -mediated MPS leads to BWT, while, in SKM, Metrnl-mediated MPS results in muscle regeneration, representing Metrnl as a new therapeutic target for inflammatory diseases. What remains unknown, in addition, is that these findings (BWT and SKM regeneration) observed in transgenic animal models still need to be verified in humans. In relation to SKM regeneration, the good news is that Metrnl is induced in damaged human SKM, suggesting that Metrnl is responsive to exercise-induced SKM damage. However, the critical question is which stimuli trigger Metrnl expression in macrophages and whether also other exercise-induced challenges like hypoxia, oxidative stress and so on could induce Metrnl. These new findings raise the question of whether Metrnl could be employed to reprogram pro-inflammatory into anti-inflammatory macrophages and, as such, serves as a new therapeutic target for inflammatory diseases not directly related to muscle repair. What would be useful to speculate, is the type, duration and intensity of exercise that can modulate the release and uptake of Metrnl, possibly also affecting the macrophage polarization state further downstream

Organ crosstalk mapping: The role of muscle-bone crosstalk in modulating diabesity-induced muscle and bone complications

Dear Editor-in-ChiefDiabesity is a modern epidemic challenge associated with metabolic disorder and chronic inflammation (Ng et al., 2021). Diabesity is reported to cause several complications in the musculoskeletal system such as sarcopenia and osteoporosis (Collins et al., 2018). Evidence suggests that obesity and diabetes negatively affect musculoskeletal system which is in favor of increasing sarcopenia and osteoporosis (Barazzoni et al., 2018; Trierweiler et al., 2018). Sarcopenic obesity (SO) is a multifactorial condition ultimately leading to body composition changes (muscle mass decrease and fat mass increase) (Wang et al., 2020) while osteoporosis is a condition in which bone density gradually decreases, increasing bone fracture risk. Diabetes has been strongly associated with an increased risk of osteoporosis-associated fractures (Romero-Díaz et al.,  2021).Hormonal changes are suggested as one of the contributing factors involved in the pathogenesis of diabesity (Wang et al., 2020). Both muscles and bones are recognized as endocrine organs secreting hormones involved in regulating metabolic and inflammatory pathways. There are numerous indications that muscle secretome contains osteoinducer and osteoinhibitor myokines; it also seems likely that bone cells secrete myoinducer and myoinhibitor osteokines (Trajanoska et al.,  2019). Meanwhile, irisin and meteorin-like hormone (Metrnl) are signaling proteins that have opened a new window at the diabetes research. Scientists from the Dasman diabetes institute in Kuwait in collaboration with scientists from other departments of surgery, pharmacology and toxicology at Kuwait university have been investigating Irisin and Metrnl involvements in obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) (Jamal et al., 2020).  As Irisin and Metrnl are discovered in the last decade, they are relatively new to scientific research. These proteins are signaling molecules produced by muscle and fat tissues in response to exercise and exposure to cold temperatures. These proteins signal mitochondria to generate energy which elevates energy expenditure and ultimately promotes weight loss (Jamal et al., 2020). This makes Irisin and Metrnl promising targets for obesity and T2D. Interestingly, researchers from Dasman diabetes institute recently discovered that these molecules are already elevated in people with obesity and T2D (AlKhairi et al., 2019). High levels of Irisin and Metrnl can be a sign that the body is attempting to restore its normal functioning. In rats undergoing a weight loss surgery (sleeve gastrectomy), the research team found increases in Irisin and Metrnl levels correlated with improvement in metabolic health (Jamal et al., 2020). This increase was also beneficial in boosting heat production as reflected by higher expression of the thermal protein UCP-1 in mitochondria. Separate experiments revealed how Irisin and Metrnl interact with muscle and the bone (Cherian et al., 2021). Results show a strong association between Irisin and Metrnl and the bone markers osteoactivin and osteoprotegerin which are involved in bone formation (Cherian et al., 2021). This molecular crosstalk might play a role in bone and muscle complications associated with T2D and obesity. More research is needed to understand the interaction between these various markers. Mapping these relationships could lead to new treatments counteracting the effects of T2D and obesity