Stages of Papal Law

Papal law is known from the late 4th century (Siricius). There was demand for decretals and they were collected in private collections from the 5th century on. Charlemagne’s Admonitio generalis made papal legislation even better known and the Pseudo-Isidorian collections brought genuine decretals also to the wide audience that these partly forged collections reached. The papal reforms from the 11th century on gave rise to a new burst of papal decretals, and collections of them, culminating in the Liber Extra of 1234. The Council of Trent opened a new phase. The ‘Congregation of the Council’, set up to apply Trent’s non-dogmatic decrees, became a new source of papal law. Finally, in 1917, nearly a millennium and a half of papal law was codified by Cardinal Gasparri within two covers. Papal law was to a great extent ‘demand-driven’, which requires explanation. The theory proposed here is that Catholic Christianity was composed of a multitude of subsystems, not planned centrally and each with an evolving life of its own. Subsystems frequently interfered with the life of other subsystems, creating new entanglements. This constantly renewed complexity had the function (though not the purpose) of creating and recreating demand for papal law to sort out the entanglements between subsystems. For various reasons other religious systems have not generated the same demand: because the state plays a ‘papal’ role, or because the units are small, discrete and simple, or thanks to a clear simple blueprint, or because of conservatism combined with a tolerance of some inconsistency. It is difficult to find a religious system with the same complexity problems combined with a strong sense that the whole needed to remain united without internal contradictions

The Cathars from Non-Catholic Sources

A convenient starting point for the history of dualist heresy in medieval Europe is R. I. Moore's The War on Heresy: Faith and Power in Medieval Europe (London, 2012). Moore leaves the attentive reader in no doubt that dualist heresy flourished in the thirteenth century. It is worth collecting some of the data he provides together, since one or two reviewers appear to have missed it. (How did they do so? The key passages occur near the end of the book, by which time it would be easy for a reader to have decided what its central argument was and to miss Moore's conscientious record of evidence that complicates the overall picture, especially since the central thrust of the argument is foregrounded and the complexities are fitted in smoothly and quite unobtrusively, as in an Economist article.

Contribution à l'élaboration d'un outil de simulation de procédés de transformation physico-chimique de matières premières issues des agro ressources : application aux procédés de transformation de biopolymères par extrusion réactive

The development of biorefineries requires integrating and optimizing plants and handling a large number of material flows and unit operations. The development of a process simulator dedicated to this field would thus be of great interest. This is what we intended to initiate by relying on the example of the oxidation of biopolymers by reactive extrusion. Reactive extrusion is characterized by a strong coupling between flow, heat transfer and reaction kinetics. This coupling depends on the desired reactions. We here intended to elaborate aflexible model, being easily integrated into a static process simulator, and enabling to reach agood compromise between the predictive character of the model and the amount of experiments required to adjust model parameters. Therefore, we adopted a hybrid modelling approach combining a flow description based on ideal reactors and continuum mechanics laws. Flow is modeled as a cascade of continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) with possible backflow. Flow rates between CSTRs are calculated using physical laws taking into account the operating conditions and geometric parameters of the equipment. Each CSTR is characterized by a filling ratio, which depends on the operating conditions. The calculation of steady-state filling ratio, pressure and flow rates between the CSTRs is achieved by performing a material balance in each CSTR. Material temperature in each CSTR is calculated through a thermal balance. The chemical modification of the material is described using three reactions: the oxidative depolymerization, the formation of functional groups(carbonyl and carboxyl) and the thermomechanical degradation of the biopolymer induced by heating and shearing. The number-averaged and weight-averaged molecular weight of the biopolymer and the oxidant content in each CSTR are computed simultaneously by applying the moment operation to population balance equations. Viscosity is linked to the mean molecular weight. An iterative algorithm enables to couple material balance, thermal balance and reaction kinetics. The experimental data required for model validation were provided by the experimental platform developed at the CVG (Centre de Valorisation des Glucides,Amiens, France) in the frame of the Synthons program. A method was proposed in order to adjust model parameters with a minimal number of experimental data, enabling to assess the predictive character of the model. Once the parameters were adjusted, the reactive extrusion model enabled to reproduce the experimental results obtained with different raw materials,flow rates, screw rotation speeds, and using two extruders with different size and screw configuration. The integration of the reactive extrusion model into a process simulator - the USIM PAC software - enabled to simplify its implementation. This constitutes a promising step in a perspective of process optimization and scale-up, and enables to simulate a reactive extrusion operation within a global plant simulator.Le développement des bioraffineries repose sur une conception optimisée d’installations industrielles en synergie comportant un grand nombre de flux de matière et d’opérations unitaires. Le recours à des simulateurs de procédés présente un intérêt certain dans la conception, l’analyse et l’optimisation de tels procédés. Souhaitant initier le développement d’un outil de simulation adapté à ce secteur, nous nous sommes appuyés sur l’exemple d’un procédé d’oxydation de biopolymères par extrusion réactive. Les procédés d’extrusion réactive sont caractérisés par un couplage intime entre écoulement, thermique et cinétiques réactionnelles. Les modalités de ce couplage dépendent des réactions visées. Souhaitant proposer un modèle flexible, intégrable dans un simulateur statique de procédés, et permettant d’atteindre un bon compromis entre la prédictivité et la quantité d’essais nécessaires pour ajuster les paramètres du modèle, nous avons opté pour une approche de modélisation mixte reposant à la fois sur une représentation de l’écoulement à l’aide de réacteurs idéaux et sur des lois de la mécanique des fluides. L’écoulement est modélisé par une cascade de réacteurs continus parfaitement agités (RCPA) avec reflux. Chaque RCPA est caractérisé par un taux de remplissage qui dépend des conditions opératoires. Le calcul du taux de remplissage des RCPA, de la pression matière et des débits circulant entre les RCPA en régime permanent est effectué en réalisant un bilan matière sur chaque RCPA. La température matière dans chacun des RCPA est calculée grâce à un bilan thermique. La modification chimique du matériau est décrite à l’aide de trois réactions : l’oxydation dépolymérisante, la formation de groupements fonctionnels (carbonyles et carboxyles) et la dégradation thermomécanique du biopolymère sous l’effet de la chaleur et des contraintes de cisaillement. L’établissement des équations de bilan de population auxquelles on applique la méthode des moments, permet de calculer simultanément les masses molaires moyennes en nombre et en poids du polymère ainsi que la teneur en agent oxydant dans chacun des RCPA. La viscosité est reliée à masse molaire moyenne. Un algorithme de calcul itératif permet de coupler le bilan matière, le bilan thermique et le calcul réactionnel. Les données expérimentales nécessaires à la validation du modèle ont été fournies par la plate-forme expérimentale mise au point au CVG (Centre de Valorisation des Glucides, Amiens) dans le cadre du programme Synthons. Une méthode d’ajustement des paramètres du modèle à partir d’un nombre minimal de données expérimentales a été proposée, permettant d’évaluer le caractère prédictif du modèle. Le modèle d’extrusion réactive ainsi ajusté a permis de reproduire les résultats expérimentaux obtenus pour différents matériaux, débits, vitesses de rotation, et sur deux extrudeuses detaille et de configuration différentes. L’intégration du modèle d’extrusion réactive dans un simulateur de procédés - le logiciel USIM PAC - a permis de simplifier sa mise en œuvre,offre des perspectives en optimisation et dimensionnement d’équipement et rend possible la simulation de l’opération d’extrusion réactive au sein d’une chaîne de transformation complète

Lateran IV and marriage. What Lateran IV did not do about marriage

What the Fourth Lateran Council did not do was to legislate for a system of registration of marriage

Values in History: Shaping and Applying an Ideal-Type’ Valeurs et systèmes de valeurs

Values, Valori, Valeurs, Werte: the words have practically the same meanings in the main scholarly languages. But in each of these languages, there is the same ambiguity. The papers for this session are themselves an expression of this ambiguity. This paper and the paper by Guido Mongini are about “values” in the sense of deeply held convictions. The papers by Laurent Feller and Marie-Luce Demonet are about monetary values and the exchange value of things. It would serve no purpose to try to find a deep underlying unity between these different senses. To do so would merely cause confusion. Of course they can be intertwined, as we see in the sessions of the conference (not just the present one). Furthermore, monetary value can sometimes be a “value” in the sense of a deeply held conviction. Arguably it is in some very capitalist societies, or even in quite different societies where material prosperity is thought to be a sign of divine favour. Some of the papers at this conference will doubtless deal with such areas of overlap. Nonetheless the connections in such cases are contingent: there is no intrinsic link between the two senses of “value”. It is best to recognize from the beginning that “value” is simply an equivocal word. Nothing abnormal about that! The word “race” can mean both a “running competition” and “ethnicity”; the word “coach” can mean “pullman” or “trainer”; the word “state” can mean “body politic” as in “Church and State” or “condition”, as in “he is in a bad state”. It is best to be clear from the beginning: this was a conference with two different themes and we should not try to pretend otherwise. Two concepts lurking behind one word, two conferences for the price of one! All the better. Moreover, there are naturally conceptual and etymological links between the two concepts. To elucidate them may be a stimulating exercise and generate insights. That is the right way to take advantage of the conference, rather than trying to find an underlying unity linking “Values A” (= convictions) and “Values B” (= money and analogous measurements). In the languages of sixties semiotics, we should look for “metonymic” rather than “metaphoric” connections: interactions, rather than analogies and similarities. Towards the end of my paper I will attempt do that in a small way, but the first task is to elucidate the “values-as-convictions” concept – “Values A”

A Weberian approach to the history of ethics: Aquinas and Kant

A distinction between hard-to-shake but rational convictions, on the one hand, and the rationality that calculates causal and logical consequences, on the other hand, can generate questions for the history of ethics. Most moral thinkers draw some such distinction but the contours of the line differ greatly, and, in drawing the line, past moral thinkers tend to be influenced by their own deeply held principles, which in turn tend to reflect their social world. Questions about where the line between values and instrumental calculation are drawn and about the effect on this of the moral thinkers own social world are applied by way of illustration to Thomas Aquinas and Kant. The paper attempts to use Weberian social theory to elucidate a theme in the history of ethics, making every effort to keep the two kinds of theory distinct