A new way of looking at the sky : neutrino telescopes

Neutrinos are weakly-interacting neutral particles, which makes them powerful sources of information about the most energetic processes in the universe, such as the origin of ultra-energetic cosmic rays or gamma-ray bursts. However, a price must be paid in order to detect them: gargantuan detectors at the bottom of the sea or under the Antarctic ice are required. The detection of the first high-energy cosmic neutrinos in 2013 by the IceCube observatory represented the start of so-called neutrino astronomy, a new way of observing the universe, which can play a key role in future discoveries. In this article, we describe how neutrino telescopes work, as well as the different initial configurations that made this new twenty-first century astronomy possible

Transmission of light in deep sea water at the site of the ANTARES neutrino telescope

The ANTARES neutrino telescope is a large photomultiplier array designed to detect neutrino-induced upward-going muons by their Cherenkov radiation. Understanding the absorption and scattering of light in the deep Mediterranean is fundamental to optimising the design and performance of the detector. This paper presents measurements of blue and UV light transmission at the ANTARES site taken between 1997 and 2000. The derived values for the scattering length and the angular distribution of particulate scattering were found to be highly correlated, and results are therefore presented in terms of an absorption length;,ab, and an effective scattering length lambda(sct)(eff). The values for blue (UV) light are found to be lambda(abs) similar or equal to 60(26) m, lambda(sct)(eff similar or equal to) 265(122) m, with significant (similar to15%) time variability. Finally, the results of ANTARES simulations showing the effect of these water properties on the anticipated performance of the detector are presented

Combined search for dark matter from the Galactic Centre with the ANTARES and IceCube neutrino telescopes

The ANTARES and IceCube neutrino telescopes have independently searched for neutrinos from dark matter pair-annihilation in the Galactic Centre, and placed limits on the velocity-averaged WIMP annihilation crosssection 〈σν〉. To date, the most stringent limits were obtained by the ANTARES neutrino telescope for WIMP masses > 100 GeV/c2, closely followed by the limits of the IceCube experiment for WIMP masses up to 1 TeV/c2. Here we present the sensitivities of a combined search for dark matter in the Galactic Centre using data from both experiments in a WIMP mass range from 100 GeV/c2 to 1 TeV/c2. This analysis includes IceCube data collected with the complete 86-strings detector from 2012 to 2015 and ANTARES data from 2007 to 2015. The two data sets were combined using a common likelihood framework, and before unblinding the combined sensitivities to 〈σν〉 are shown

Combined search for dark matter from the Galactic Centre with the ANTARES and IceCube neutrino telescopes

The ANTARES and IceCube neutrino telescopes have independently searched for neutrinos from dark matter pair-annihilation in the Galactic Centre, and placed limits on the velocity-averaged WIMP annihilation crosssection 〈σν〉. To date, the most stringent limits were obtained by the ANTARES neutrino telescope for WIMP masses > 100 GeV/c2, closely followed by the limits of the IceCube experiment for WIMP masses up to 1 TeV/c2. Here we present the sensitivities of a combined search for dark matter in the Galactic Centre using data from both experiments in a WIMP mass range from 100 GeV/c2 to 1 TeV/c2. This analysis includes IceCube data collected with the complete 86-strings detector from 2012 to 2015 and ANTARES data from 2007 to 2015. The two data sets were combined using a common likelihood framework, and before unblinding the combined sensitivities to 〈σν〉 are shown

Solar Atmospheric Neutrino searches with the ANTARES neutrino telescope

Cosmic-rays interacting with nucleons in the solar atmosphere produce a cascade of particles that give rise to a flux of high-energy neutrinos and gamma-rays. Fermi has observed this gammaray flux; however, the associated neutrino flux has escaped observation. In this contribution, we put forward two strategies to detect these neutrinos, which, if seen, would push forward our understanding of the solar atmosphere and provide a new testing ground of neutrino properties. First, we will extend the previous analysis, which used high-energy through-going muon events collected in the years of maximum solar activity and yielded only flux upper limits, to include data taken during the solar minimum from 2018 to 2020. Extending the analysis to the solar minimum is important as the gamma-ray data collected during past solar cycles indicates a possible enhancement in the high-energy neutrino flux. Second, we will incorporate sub-TeV events and include contributions from all neutrino flavors. These will improve our analysis sensitivity since the solar atmospheric spectrum is soft and, due to oscillation, contains significant contributions of all neutrino flavors. As we will present in this contribution, these complementary strategies yield a significant improvement in sensitivity, making substantial progress towards observing this flux.Article signat per 381 autors/es: R. Abbasi, M. Ackermann, J. Adams, J. A. Aguilar, M. Ahlers, M. Ahrens, C. Alispach, A. A. Alves Jr., N. M. Amin, R. An, K. Andeen, T. Anderson, G. Anton, C. Argüelles, Y. Ashida, S. Axani, X. Bai, A. Balagopal V., A. Barbano, S. W. Barwick, B. Bastian, V. Basu, S. Baur, R. Bay, J. J. Beatty, K.-H. Becker, J. Becker Tjus, C. Bellenghi, S. BenZvi, D. Berley, E. Bernardini, D. Z. Besson, G. Binder , D. Bindig, E. Blaufuss, S. Blot, M. Boddenberg, F. Bontempo, J. Borowka, S. Böser, O. Botner, J. Böttcher1 , E. Bourbeau, F. Bradascio, J. Braun, S. Bron, J. Brostean-Kaiser, S. Browne, A. Burgman, R. T. Burley, R. S. Busse, M. A. Campana, E. G. Carnie-Bronca, C. Chen, D. Chirkin, K. Choi, B. A. Clark, K. Clark, L. Classen, A. Coleman, G. H. Collin, J. M. Conrad, P. Coppin, P. Correa, D. F. Cowen, R. Cross, C. Dappen, P. Dave, C. De Clercq, J. J. DeLaunay56, H. Dembinski, K. Deoskar, S. De Ridder, A. Desai, P. Desiati, K. D. de Vries, G. de Wasseige, M. de With, T. DeYoung, S. Dharani, A. Diaz, J. C. Díaz-Vélez, M. Dittmer, H. Dujmovic, M. Dunkman, M. A. DuVernois, E. Dvorak, T. Ehrhardt, P. Eller, R. Engel, H. Erpenbeck, J. Evans, P. A. Evenson, K. L. Fan, A. R. Fazely, S. Fiedlschuster, A. T. Fienberg, K. Filimonov , C. Finley, L. Fischer, D. Fox, A. Franckowiak, E. Friedman, A. Fritz, P. Fürst, T. K. Gaisser, J. Gallagher, E. Ganster, A. Garcia, S. Garrappa, L. Gerhardt, A. Ghadimi, C. Glaser, T. Glauch, T. Glüsenkamp, A. Goldschmidt, J. G. Gonzalez, S. Goswami, D. Grant, T. Grégoire, S. Griswold, M. Gündüz, C. Günther, C. Haack, A. Hallgren, R. Halliday, L. Halve, F. Halzen, M. Ha Minh, K. Hanson, J. Hardin, A. A. Harnisch, A. Haungs, S. Hauser, D. Hebecker, K. Helbing, F. Henningsen, E. C. Hettinger, S. Hickford, J. Hignight, C. Hill, G. C. Hill, K. D. Hoffman, R. Hoffmann, T. Hoinka, B. Hokanson-Fasig, K. Hoshina, F. Huang, M. Huber, T. Huber, K. Hultqvist, M. Hünnefeld, R. Hussain, S. In, N. Iovine, A. Ishihara, M. Jansson, G. S. Japaridze, M. Jeong, B. J. P. Jones, D. Kang, W. Kang, X. Kang, A. Kappes, D. Kappesser, T. Karg, M. Karl, A. Karle, U. Katz, M. Kauer, M. Kellermann1 , J. L. Kelley, A. Kheirandish, K. Kin, T. Kintscher, J. Kiryluk, S. R. Klein, R. Koirala, H. Kolanoski, T. Kontrimas, L. Köpke, C. Kopper, S. Kopper, D. J. Koskinen, P. Koundal, M. Kovacevich, M. Kowalski, T. Kozynets, E. Kun, N. Kurahashi, N. Lad, C. Lagunas Gualda, J. L. Lanfranchi, M. J. Larson, F. Lauber, J. P. Lazar, J. W. Lee, K. Leonard, A. Leszczyńska, Y. Li, M. Lincetto, Q. R. Liu, M. Liubarska, E. Lohfink, C. J. Lozano Mariscal, L. Lu, F. Lucarelli, A. Ludwig, W. Luszczak, Y. Lyu, W. Y. Ma, J. Madsen, K. B. M. Mahn, Y. Makino, S. Mancina, I. C. Mariş, R. Maruyama, K. Mase, T. McElroy, F. McNally, J. V. Mead, K. Meagher, A. Medina, M. Meier, S. Meighen-Berger, J. Micallef, D. Mockler, T. Montaruli, R. W. Moore, R. Morse, M. Moulai, R. Naab, R. Nagai, U. Naumann, J. Necker, L. V. Nguyên, H. Niederhausen, M. U. Nisa, S. C. Nowicki, D. R. Nygren, A. Obertacke Pollmann, M. Oehler, A. Olivas, E. O’Sullivan, H. Pandya, D. V. Pankova, N. Park, G. K. Parker , E. N. Paudel, L. Paul, C. Pérez de los Heros, L. Peters, J. Peterson, S. Philippen, D. Pieloth, S. Pieper, M. Pittermann, A. Pizzuto, M. Plum, Y. Popovych, A. Porcelli, M. Prado Rodriguez, P. B. Price , B. Pries, G. T. Przybylski, C. Raab, A. Raissi, M. Rameez, K. Rawlins, I. C. Rea, A. Rehman, P. Reichherzer, R. Reimann, G. Renzi, E. Resconi, S. Reusch, W. Rhode, M. Richman , B. Riedel, E. J. Roberts, S. Robertson, G. Roellinghoff, M. Rongen, C. Rott, T. Ruhe, D. Ryckbosch, D. Rysewyk Cantu, I. Safa, J. Saffer, S. E. Sanchez Herrera, A. Sandrock, J. Sandroos, M. Santander, S. Sarkar, S. Sarkar, K. Satalecka, M. Scharf, M. Schaufel, H. Schieler, S. Schindler, P. Schlunder, T. Schmidt, A. Schneider, J. Schneider, F. G. Schröder, L. Schumacher, G. Schwefer, S. Sclafani, D. Seckel, S. Seunarine, A. Sharma, S. Shefali, M. Silva, B. Skrzypek, B. Smithers, R. Snihur, J. Soedingrekso, D. Soldin, C. Spannfellner, G. M. Spiczak, C. Spiering, J. Stachurska, M. Stamatikos, T. Stanev, R. Stein, J. Stettner1 , A. Steuer, T. Stezelberger, T. Stürwald, T. Stuttard, G. W. Sullivan, I. Taboada, F. Tenholt, S. Ter-Antonyan, S. Tilav, F. Tischbein, K. Tollefson, L. Tomankova, C. Tönnis, S. Toscano12, D. Tosi, A. Trettin, M. Tselengidou, C. F. Tung, A. Turcati, R. Turcotte, C. F. Turley, J. P. Twagirayezu, B. Ty, M. A. Unland Elorrieta, N. Valtonen-Mattila, J. Vandenbroucke, N. van Eijndhoven, D. Vannerom, J. van Santen, S. Verpoest, M. Vraeghe, C. Walck, T. B. Watson, C. Weaver, P. Weigel, A. Weindl, M. J. Weiss, J. Weldert, C. Wendt, J. Werthebach, M. Weyrauch, N. Whitehorn, C. H. Wiebusch, D. R. Williams, M. Wolf, K. Woschnagg, G. Wrede, J. Wulff, X. W. Xu, Y. Xu, J. P. Yanez, S. Yoshida, S. Yu, T. Yuan, Z. ZhangPostprint (published version

Deep-Sea Bioluminescence Blooms after Dense Water Formation at the Ocean Surface

The deep ocean is the largest and least known ecosystem on Earth. It hosts numerous pelagic organisms, most of which are able to emit light. Here we present a unique data set consisting of a 2.5-year long record of light emission by deep-sea pelagic organisms, measured from December 2007 to June 2010 at the ANTARES underwater neutrino telescope in the deep NW Mediterranean Sea, jointly with synchronous hydrological records. This is the longest continuous time-series of deep-sea bioluminescence ever recorded. Our record reveals several weeks long, seasonal bioluminescence blooms with light intensity up to two orders of magnitude higher than background values, which correlate to changes in the properties of deep waters. Such changes are triggered by the winter cooling and evaporation experienced by the upper ocean layer in the Gulf of Lion that leads to the formation and subsequent sinking of dense water through a process known as “open-sea convection”. It episodically renews the deep water of the study area and conveys fresh organic matter that fuels the deep ecosystems. Luminous bacteria most likely are the main contributors to the observed deep-sea bioluminescence blooms. Our observations demonstrate a consistent and rapid connection between deep open-sea convection and bathypelagic biological activity, as expressed by bioluminescence. In a setting where dense water formation events are likely to decline under global warming scenarios enhancing ocean stratification, in situ observatories become essential as environmental sentinels for the monitoring and understanding of deep-sea ecosystem shifts

Suelo y planta. Índices. Volumen 1

Compostaje de la fracción orgánica de un residuo sólido urbano. Evolución de su contenido en diversas fracciones de metales pesados, C. García, T. Hernández, F. Costa y M. Ayuso.-- Decomposition of chromium containing leather residues in a Sandy soil, A. Benedetti, B. Ceccanti, M. Calcinai and R. Tarsitano.-- Aluminum tolerance assessment in Bush vean cultivars by root growth analysis anto hematoxylin standing, N. Massot, Ch. Poschenrieder and J. Barceló.-- Utilización del test de la formamida en la identificacion de los filosilicatos l:l de suelos de la provincia de la Coruña R. Romero, C. García y F. Macías.-- Efecto del encalado y de la fertilización con fosforo sobre las formas de acidez de dos suelos ácidos de Galicia M. M. Urrutia, E. García-Rodeja y F. Macías.-- Sobre el clima de la provincia de Almeria (se iberico): primer ensayo de cartografia automatica de medias anuales de temperatura y precipitación, R. Lázaro y J. M. Rey.-- Vitrifica tion and ba-induced anomalies in in vitro chestnut cultures, A. Ballester, M. C. San-José and A. M. Vieitez.-- Phenmedipham inhibition of biological nitrogen fixation in pea plants, S. Treleani, E. Bedmar, J. J. Lázaro, A. Chueca and J. López Gorge.-- morphometry and surface growth dynamics of the sunflower. (helianthus annuus l.) receptacle its importance in the determination of yield, L. F. Hernández.-- Acumulación de nitratos y actividad nitrato reductasa en diferentes cultivares de vicia faba l., J. M. Caba, C. Lluch, A. Hervás y F. Ligero.-- Desarrollo vegetativo, acumulación y distribución de a-, na+ y k+ en dos patrones de limonero, M. Nieves, A. Cerdá y S. Navarro.-- Incidencia de la fertilizacion foliar de quelatos de hierro y micronutrientes en los niveles de n, p, k, ca, mg y na en hojas de "vitis vinifera" cv. Aledo, J. Navarro, J. Mataix, J. Sánchez-Andreu y M. Juárez.-- Estimacion de la movilidad potencial de la arcilla mediante electroultrafiltracion y su importancia en genesis de suelos R. J. Ballesta, y J. A. Díez.-- Exchange processes in two soils subjected to different organic treatments, C. Fortún and A. Fortún.-- Respuesta del trigo a las aplicaciones parciales de nitrogeno cultivado durante tres años bajo condiciones semiáridas, G. C. Laurent y M. A. Lazzari.-- Destino del 15N del fertilizante aplicado al trigo durante dos años consecutivos en condiciones semiáridas, M. A. Lazzari, G. C. Laurent y R. L. Victoria.-- Estudio con trazador sobre la disponibilidad del nitrógeno residual M. A. Lazzari, G. C. Laurent y R. L. Victoria.-- Factores condicionantes del encalado en los ultisoles del oeste de España, R. Espejo, E. Barragán, M. C. Díaz y J. Pérez.-- Influencia de la dosis de fosforo en la disolución de riego sobre cultivo de tomate en enarenado y condiciones salinas A. Masaguer, C. Cadahía, A. Saá y M. J. Sarro.-- Influencia del manganeso y diferentes temperaturas ambientales sobre el crecimiento y absorción de manganeso en soja (Glycine_ max (L.) Merr.) J. M. Romera y M. Gómez.-- Perfiles ecotoxicologicos: la necesidad de su realización, E. Laborda, F. A. Antón y L. M. Cuadra.-- Adsorción de carbendazima, cianazina y etirimol por suelos, G. Dios, E. Romero y F. Sánchez-Rasero.-- Micorrizas vesiculo-arbusculares en austrocedrus chilensis, S. Fontenla, M. Havrylenko y P. H. Rosso.-- Determinación de capacidad de cambio catiónico y cationes extraíbles con agtiourea en andosoles, C. D. Arbelo, M. Espino y J. M. Hernández-Moreno.-- Caracterization of the humic fraction from a solio municipal waste during composting, C. García, T. Hernández, F. Costa and A. Polo.-- Sulfato desorbffile con fosfato en andosoles, V. Cubas, C. D. Arbelo y M. Espino.-- Paleoprocesos edaficos en superficies pliocuaternarias del centro de España, J. Benayas, L. Alcalá del Olmo B., F. Monturiol y A. Guerra.-- Fraccionamiento de cobalto en suelos, M. J. Graña, M. T. Barral, F. E. Guitián y F. Guitián.-- Evolución de las poblaciones de heterodera avenae (nema toda) y su efecto en el desarrollo y rendimiento de trigo en rotación y monocultivo, Mª D. Romero, A. Valdeolivas, C. Lacasta y A. Duce.-- Efecfos restrictivos de la fertilidad del suelo sobre la distribución de Cytisus multif/orus (L'Her) Sweer, J. M. Gómez, P. Galindo, V. Martínez, y M. A. Pérez.-- Dinámica del sistema radicular de dos genotipos de tomate en invernadero en riego por goteo sometidos a estrés salino, J. M. Abrisqueta, A. Hernánsaez, J. J. Alarcón y M. A. Lozano.-- Distribución de sales en una secuencia de suelos costeros de la bahía blanca (argentina), H. R. Krüger y N. Peineman.-- Evaluación cinética de la desorción de bases en suelos con carga permanente y variable. comparación con el método de la pasta saturada, C. D. Arbelo, J. M. Hernández-Moreno y J. E. García.-- Análisis de la interacción luz-forma de nutrición nitrogenada en plantas de tomate, P. Zornoza, I. Sanz y O. Carpena.-- Respuesta de algunos suelos de Galicia al aporte de un ácido fuerte, M. M. Urrutia, E. García-Rodeja y F. Macías.-- Estudio de la efectividad de fertilización foliar de uva de mesa, variedad aledo con micronutrientes quelatados a través del diagnóstico foliar y pecio lar J. Navarro, J. Sánchez Andréu, J. Mataix y M. Juárez.-- Características de suelos bajo sabinares albares sobre material calizo, J. González y M. A. Candas.-- Eficacia de quelatos de fe en un sistema de riego por goteo, A. Gárate y J. J. Lucena.-- Variaciones de la fracción orgánica durante el compost aje de lodos de depuradoras, M. A. Díaz-Burgos y A. Polo.-- Formas de cobre, niquel y cinc en horizontes . superficiales de suelos, M. J. Graña, M. T. Barral, F. E. Guitián y F. Guitián.-- Índices de contaminación por metales pesados en suelos de cultivo intensivo: aplicacion en la comarca de l'hort a (Valencia), M. F. Errecalde, R. Boluda, M. J. Lagarda y R. Farré.-- Estudio estadístico de las propiedades fÍsico-quimicas de luvisoles desarrollados sobre materiales calizos en valencia (España), Mª D. Soriano, R. Boluda, V. Pons y J. Sánchez.-- Grado de uniformidad de los materiales en suelos con horizontes texturalmente contrastados, R. J. Ballesta, V. Cala y R. García.-- Geographic information systems and remote sensing in land resources anal ysis and mangement G. W. Petersen, G. A. Nielsen, and L. P. Wilding -- El laboreo de conservación como medida de control de la erosión, P. González, E. Fereres, J. V. Giráldez, Mª I. González de Quevedo y A. Laguna.-- Laboreo de conservación: tendencias y prioridades de investigación, J. L. Arrúe y. Mª V. López.-- Factores de escala en la medida de la erosión hídrica en suelos incendiados del nw de España, F. Díaz-Fierros, B. Soto, R. Pérez y E. Benito.-- Influencia de la cobertura vegetal y material original en las características del suelo. contribución a problemas de erosión J. Hernando, M. L. Palomar, M.T. de la Cruz y P. Jerez.-- La salinidad en el nuevo regadío de quinto (zaragoza), J. Herrero y A. Bercero.-- Translocaciones solidas en suelos con características sódicas en monegros- flumen (Huesca): procesos e implicaciones para el uso agrícola, J. Porta y R. Rodríguez-Ochoa.-- Degradacion física de los suelos de una zona de rañas de la provincia de Salamanca, F. lngelmo, S. Cuadrado, J. Hernández y A. lbáñez.-- Metales extraffiles (cu, co, ni, zn y mn) en materiales estériles de minas de lignito de Galicia, S. Seoane, Mª V. González, F. Gil, Mª C. Leirós y F. Guitián Ojea.-- Contenido y evolución del plomo total en los inceptisoles de la provincia de Valencia, Y. Pons.-- Influencia del aporte sucesivo de compost urbano sobre la disponibilidad de k de un suelo, J. M. Murillo, F. Cabrera, J. M. Hernández y M. Barroso.-- Posible catena potencial de suelos en las sierras de Orce y Maria, L. J. Alías y J. Martínez.-- Caracterización mineralógica y evolución de las microtexturas de los granos de cuarzo en los suelos desarrollados sobre materiales arenosos del litoral de Cádiz, L. Torcal, M. Nieves y V. Gómez-Miguel.-- Clases mineralógicas: la clase "medial” en suelos graníticos de Galicia, R. Romero, C. García y F. Macías.-- Características analíticas de un suelo podsolizado de alta montaña, J. González y A. M. Moreno.-- Estudio de perfiles de alteración en abanicos aluviales neogenos sobre el zócalo hercinico ibeerico R. Espejo, E. Molina y M. A. Vicente.-Transformaciones mineralógicas en suelos sobre formaciones tipo "raña'' M. T. García-González y F. J. Aragoneses.-- Morfología y génesis de las terrazas antiguas de la cuenca del río Gualchos (Granada), C. Sierra, A. Roca y J. Quirantes.-- Dinámica del hierro y aluminio en las terrazas del río Gualchos (Granada), A. Roca, C. Sierra, J. Quirantes y J. Aguilar.- Homogeneidad/heterogeneidad de los materiales fluviales de las terrazas de río Tormes, P. Alonso, C. Dorronsoro, M. I. González, M. P. García, J. A. Egido y J. M. García.-- Transformaciones y translocaciones del fosforo como indicadores del desarrollo del suelo, C. RoblesPeer reviewe

Time series of oceanographic parameters measured at the Lacaze-Duthiers Canyon (LDC) and the open-sea convection region in the Gulf of Lion (LION) from January 2008 to June 2010.

<p>(<b>a</b>) Potential temperature at 500 and 1,000 m depth at the LDC mooring site and (<b>b</b>) from various water depths at the LION site, jointly with (<b>c</b>) salinity at 2,300 m depth, (<b>d</b>) horizontal current speed and (<b>e</b>) vertical current speed from various water depths at the LION site. The four levels of temperature measurements at LION presented here are a sub-set of measurement depths (see Fig. S1). Essentially stable temperatures in the deepest layers in 2008 show that open-sea convection reached only 700 m and did not modify the deep water in the study area. In contrast, strong convection events, reaching 2,300 m depth, occurred during February-March 2009 and 2010 with an abrupt cooling of the upper water column and an increase in temperature and salinity in the deep layers. A concurrent increase in current speed was also noticed in winter 2009 and 2010. The 5-month long data gap in 2009 is due to a damaging of the mooring line during the April 2009 recovery, which induced a postponement of its redeployment to September 2009.</p

Links between bioluminescence, current speed and the modification of the properties of the Western Mediterranean Deep Water (WMDW).

<p>Box-and-whisker plot of median PMT counting rates (log scale) versus current speed classes for salinities higher (red) or lower (grey) than 38.479 for data recorded in (<b>a</b>) 2008, (<b>b</b>) 2009 and (<b>c</b>) between January and June 2010. The salinity threshold of 38.479 is used as a marker of the intrusion of newly formed deep water at the ANTARES site. While bioluminescence increases with current speed, it is also enhanced by the modification of WMDW (red box-plots). The top and bottom of each box-plot represent 75% (upper quartile) and 25% (lower quartile) of all values, respectively. The horizontal line is the median. The ends of the whiskers represent the 10^th and 90^th percentiles. Outliers are not represented. The statistical comparison between the two box-plots (red and grey) in each current class is given by the Kruskal-Wallis test: the observed difference between the two samples is significant beyond the 0.05 (*), the 0.01 (**) and the 0.001 (***) levels. The absence of an asterisk in some current classes indicates that the difference between the two box-plots is not significant. The number of measurements for salinity lower or higher than 38.479 is given in black or in red, respectively. Note the different scales of figures a, b and c.</p