Performance of Large-Scale Gezira Irrigation Scheme and its Implications for Downstream River Nile Flow

Policy makers adopt irrigated agriculture for food security, since irrigation doubles crop production. Therefore, the development of large irrigation systems has a long history in many places worldwide. Although large-scale irrigation schemes play an important role in improving food security, many schemes, especially in Africa, do not yield the expected outcomes. This is related to poor water management, which is generally due to a lack of effective evaluation and monitoring. The objective of this study, therefore, is to propose a new methodology to assess, evaluate and monitor large-scale irrigation systems. Information on irrigation indicators is needed to enable the evaluation of irrigation performance. The evaluation is the first and the most significant step in providing information about how it is performing. After reviewing extensive literature, a list of indicators related to the performance of irrigation, rainwater supply and productivity is suggested. The irrigation efficiency indicators Relative Irrigation Supply (RIS) and Relative Water Supply (RWS) are selected. Potential rainwater supply to crops can be tested based on the Moisture Availability Index (MAI) and the Ratio of Moisture Availability (RMA). Water productivity can be assessed by Crop Yield (Y) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE). However, the central problem facing large-scale irrigation schemes is always the lack of data, which calls for the development of a new method of data acquisition that allows evaluation and monitoring. Remote Sensing (RS) technology makes it possible to retrieve data across large areas. Two different approaches via RS, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Actual Evapotranspiration (ETa), can be utilized for monitoring. The well-known Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), derived from the NDVI, is modified (MVCI) to allow a qualitative spatio-temporal assessment of irrigation efficiency. MVCI takes into account crop response to water availability, while ETa indicates whether water is used as intended. Furthermore, the assessment of the possible hydrological impact of the irrigation system should be considered in the evaluation and monitoring process. The Sudanese Gezira Scheme of 8,000 square kilometers in the Nile Basin, where performance evaluation and monitoring are absent or poorly conducted, is no exception. This research takes the large-scale irrigation of the Gezira Scheme as a case study, as it is the largest scheme, not only in the Nile Basin but also in the world, under single management. The first long-term historical evaluation of the scheme is conducted for the period 1961–2012 rather than only on a short-time scale as is the common practice. An increase in RIS and RWS values from 1.40 and 1.70 to 2.23 and 2.60, respectively, since the 1993/94 season shows decreasing irrigation efficiency. MAI and RMA for summer crops indicate a promising rainfall contribution to irrigation in July and August. The Gezira Scheme achieves low yield and WUE in comparison to many irrigation schemes of the globe. Low productivity is mainly due to poor distribution and irrigation mismanagement. This is indicated by the 15-year MVCI spatio-temporal analysis, which shows that the northern part of the scheme experiences characteristic drought during the summer crop season. Although MVCI can be considered a monitoring tool, the index does not deduct the soil water content, and water could be wasted and available in other ways (e.g. water depressions). Spatio-temporal information for ETa is required to better quantify water depletion and establish links between land use and water allocation. However, several RS models have been developed for estimating ETa. Thus, improving the understanding of performance of such models in arid climates, as well as large-scale irrigation schemes, is taken into account in this study. Four different models based on the energy balance method, the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL), Mapping EvapoTranspiration at High Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC™), Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) and MOD16 ET are applied in order to determine the optimal approach for obtaining ETa. Outputs from these models are compared to actual water balance (WB) estimates during the 2004/05 season at field scale. Several statistical measures are evaluated, and a score is given for each model in order to select the best-performing model. Based on ranking criteria, SSEB gives the best performance and is seen as a suitable operational ETa model for the scheme. SSEB subsequently is applied for summer and winter crop seasons for the period 2000–2014. Unfortunately, one of the limitations faced in the current research is the absence of validation data on a regional scale. Therefore, the assessment focuses on spatial distribution and trends rather than absolute values. As with the MVCI distribution, the seasonal ETa for the Gezira Scheme is higher in the southern and central parts than in the northern part. This confirms the robustness of the developed MVCI. To avoid using absolute values of ETa, the ratio of ETa from agricultural areas (ETagr) to the total evapotranspiration (ET) from the scheme (ETsum) is calculated. The ETagr/ETsum ratio shows a descending trend over recent years, indicating that the water is available but not being utilized for agricultural production. This study shows that SSEB is also useful for identifying the location of water losses on a daily basis. Around 80 channels are identified as having leakage problems for the 2013/14 crop season. Such information is very useful for reducing losses at the scheme. In addition, Rainwater Harvesting (WH) is addressed and found to be applicable as an alternative solution for accounting for rainfall in irrigation. It is seen that these management scenarios could save water and increase the overall efficiency of the scheme. It is possible to save 68 million cubic meters of water per year when the overall irrigation efficiency of the scheme is improved by only 1%. A level of efficiency of 75% is predicted from the proposed management scenarios, which could save about 2.6 billion cubic meters of water per year. In conclusion, the present study has developed an innovative method of identifying the problems of large-scale schemes as well as proposing management scenarios to enhance irrigation water management practice. Improved agricultural water management in terms of crop, water and land management can increase food production, thereby alleviating poverty and hunger in an environmentally sustainable manner

The Role of Emirati Women during the Covid-19 Pandemic and the Challenges

Using a qualitative methodology of personal interviews and participant observation, this research investigates the role of Emirati women in the fight against the Covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent impact/challenges. Research participants included female Emirati health care workers and educationists. We observed Emirati families to help better understand the challenges women went through during the pandemic. Contrary to existing narratives about the invisibility, docility, marginalization, victimhood, and dependency of Arab women, this research reveals that Emirati women were able to exercise agency in the fight against the pandemic due to the following factors: longstanding government empowerment of women, a sense of patriotism, supportive male relatives, and female dominance in the health and educational sectors. During the pandemic, Emirati women have contributed in the following ways as: volunteers; international aid workers; care givers; health information agents; and virtual teachers. Despite this, challenges abound because of the following: increased family conflict; domestic violence; the psychological toll of Covid-related deaths; economic challenges; and increased domestic responsibilities. The Emirati women’s case provides lessons for policy makers and societies desirous of women’s empowerment

Tourist Experiences with the Service Quality of Sushi Restaurants in Norway: User Generated Content on TripAdvisor

One of the most significant aspects in determining a firm's achievement is its aptitude to satisfy customers with its goods and services. Consumer loyalty is something imperative that ought to be accomplished by the organization. Customers who are dissatisfied with the services they receive are more likely to abandon the business (Skrede & Tveteraas, 2019, pp. 1286-1301). The organization normally takes estimations to decide the degree of consumer loyalty with the goal that it can take a stab at the best service. According to Oklevik et al. (2019, pp. 1804-1824), reliability, assurance, tangibility, empathy, and responsiveness are the five theme variables that can be used to measure service quality. User-generated content (UGC) about food has been the subject of recent research that has cast doubt on its credibility and relevance. In any case, diners’ both international tourists and local citizens do not just peruse and use data from the Web during their pre-booking decision process, they also in addition, post content on the Web during and post-dining stages. Moreover, these data are helpful and significant to other sushi restaurants' decision cycles, however, in various degrees. So, what makes a UGC useful, and who is it for? TripAdvisor customer feedback on restaurant experiences in Norway was gathered to comprehend these questions better. The findings confirm the existence of distinct traveler experience profiles about UGC restaurant-related topics. Likewise, the outcomes further build up the writing comparative with the significance of online web-based socials in the dynamic consumer cycle and the general eatery experience. This examination was directed in Norway, where the five variable factors were analyzed to determine which factors impacted consumer loyalty. The data for the study came from TripAdvisor's User-Generated Content (UGC), written by diners (both international tourists to Norway and local Norwegian citizens) at sushi restaurants about their dining experiences. SPSS was used to analyze the data. From the aftereffects of the study, it tends to be reasoned that reliability, tangibility, empathy, and responsiveness subjects impact consumer loyalty in Sushi cafés in Norway

The arbitral award and the powers of the arbitrator appointed by the court in accordance with the UAE arbitration law

This study talked about the arbitral award and the powers of the arbitrator appointed by the court in accordance with the UAE Federal Arbitration Law No. (6) of 2018. This law regulates the procedures and methods to be followed in accordance with the UAE Arbitration Law and not violate public order. This study adopted a qualitative methodology through the descriptive، analytical and comparative method by extrapolating and analyzing the rules and texts of Federal Law No. (6) of 2018 on arbitration، compared to other legislation. This study aimed to clarify the nature of the arbitrator and arbitration، its legal status، and the similarities and differences between arbitration and the judiciary. This study showed that the UAE Arbitration Law sets legal rules and principles that obligate the parties to the arbitration and the arbitrators to settle the dispute within a certain period. Moreover، this study explained the rules related to the legal adaptation of the relationship that binds the litigants to the arbitrator، the arbitration center، and the nature of the arbitrator’s work. The study also dealt with the limits of the arbitrator، his powers and responsibility، the method of his selection by the court، and the arbitrator's authority to determine the applicable law. This study also differentiated between legal restrictions and the agreement in commercial arbitration. The results of this study showed that the Federal Arbitration Law No. 56 of 2018 regulated the internal arbitration rules، and the legislator did not stipulate these rules under independent procedural rules that clearly show how to organize the duties of the arbitrator and the scope of his responsibility to protect the rights of the contestants and strengthen the arbitration system. The study suggested that the UAE legislator organise the arbitration rules and establish comprehensive rules for all aspects of arbitrators and the arbitral system. In addition to reconsidering the establishment of provisions related to electronic arbitration in line with the development of the virtual world. Moreover، this study recommends setting up an arbitration system that is not limited to traders only، but rather opens the way to other categories of civil society

The Arab people and the early Islamic period

This MA thesis, entitled The Arab People and The Early Islamic Period, has been written in response to the post 9/11 interest in the Arab people and early Islam among Western academics. It gives a brief account of pre-Islamic Arabia, the beginnings of Islam and the philosophies and ideologies contained in the religion in an attempt to address the following two fundamental questions: 1. Are there any real grounds for the widely-held perception of the Arab people as a backward race, uncivilised, fragmented, unwilling to develop and making no contribution to the international community? Does their history support this perception? 2. Do the origins of Islam and the way it developed and expanded during its earliest days support current criticisms that Islam itself is an inherently violent religion? A study of the theories of the Arabs as a Semitic race, their geographical distribution and civilisations, the tribes of pre-Islamic Arabia and the ruling powers which influenced the region up to the 6(^th) century will be presented, before an examination of the origins of Islam, from the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in AD 570 to the death of the fourth Caliph in AD 661. It was during this period that Islam reached its zenith as a religion. During this time the essential, fundamental Islam can be surveyed - before imperial Islam was born, before it was adapted to suit differing needs and before it fragmented into sects. All original knowledge of Islam came from this period, what followed merely being derivatives of it. By examining the nature of the expansion of Islam - whether it was spread by military force or through trade and missionaries - we attempt to address questions concerning the Prophet’s confrontations with the enemies of Islam. Were he and his caliphs impoverished, power-seeking imperialists or did they just respond to challenges resulting from what they saw as a duty to make the Prophet's ideology known to people? The conclusion will argue that the Arab people, those of pre-Islamic Arabia as well as those of today, are direct descendents of the early inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula, bound by common history and language with no ancestral discontinuity. Arabia is the birthplace of the earliest civilisations and has always been the home of many religions and ideologies. This region has always played an important role in other civilisations, in terms of imperial expansion, trade and the exchange of ideas. Many of its qualities were adopted and encompassed within those other civilisations. That Arabia became the birthplace of Islam seems natural, given that it has always been a region rich in ideas. Its emergence was also timely, as the other two monotheistic religions had been, coming at just the right moment for humanity. Islam embraces other faiths and religions, does not call for the enslavement of mind or body and does not encourage violent acts. The negative perceptions of Arabs as anti-establishment and violent and of Islam as a dangerous religion which threatens humanity is ill-founded. The reactions to Islam currently being witnessed mirrors events of 7(^th) century when the Byzantine and Sassanian superpowers sought to secure land and natural resources under the pretext of ideological differences. It is likely that this region will always be a theatre of conflict, due to its geographical location as a crossroads between continents. This study is divided into the following four chapters (excluding introduction and conclusions):Chapter 1 ： Ancient Arabia and the World Leading to the 6(^th) Century Chapter 2: Prophet Muhammad and the Birth of Islam Chapter 3: The Rāshīdūn Period Chapter 4: Islam - The Ongoing Legacy. In surveying and summarising such a large span of time, from the early history of man up to the century, this work gives a broad overview rather than going into great detail on any of the topics covered. Whilst referring to other civilisations, such as ancient Egyptian, Greek and Persian where pertinent, this work focuses on the Arabian Peninsula and on the civilisations within that geographical region. In addition, there are few references from the time of the early Muslim expansion which reflect the opinions of opposing sides. References from the 9(^th) century onward are more widely available. Therefore, it was decided that presenting a history of the misrepresentation of Islam was beyond the scope of this MA. given that extensive research would need to be carried out in order to present an accurate, balanced account. This work is addressed to non-Arabic speaking readers. Regarding research, a decision was made to rely for sources on Western books and references easily available to examiners and readers. It was considered that the use of Arabic references could prove problematic, as understanding them without full knowledge of the Arabic language would be difficult. As there is no linguistic aspect to the scope of this thesis and given that it is addressed to non- Arabic speaking readers, a standardised simplified transliteration system has been used

Decolonialities and the Exilic Consciousness:Thinking from the Global South

This chapter is a journey of thought exploring decolonial critique as a situated practice while thinking through exilic consciousness and its constitutive conditions. I begin by reflecting on decolonialities to gesture toward varied forms of decolonial projects that need to be situated, given that each location generates different sets of questions/problems that demand different answers. In this way, I reconfigure the exilic condition, and the space of displacement in general, as a plurilingual space that unsettles various colonial forms of epistemic monolingualism predicated on the self-sufficiency of thought. To this end, I reflect on the potentiality of exilic consciousness to generate decolonial critique when thinking from/about the Global South. Finally, this chapter demonstrates the significance of acknowledging the diverse locations and trajectories of decolonial critique and the plurality of thought embedded within the exilic intellectual formation that can potentially undo colonial forms of knowledge-making and being in the world

Allegories of neoliberalism : contemporary South Asian fictions, forms of appearance, and the critique of capitalism

In his book After Critique, Mitchum Huehls writes that neoliberalism is “the socio-cultural dominant” of our contemporary moment. In this study, I ask: if neoliberalism is indeed the socio-cultural dominant today, how have contemporary South Asian fictions responded to it? Drawing upon Fredric Jameson’s hypothesis that all literary works are allegorical, I argue that in contemporary South Asian fictions, the representation of neoliberalism has often taken two different historical trajectories: apprehension of it as a structure of feeling, and critique of its corrosive effects on society and the planet. Drawing upon contemporary scholarship, I outline a Marxist theory of neoliberalism. In the body chapters, I engage with South Asian fictions from writers such as Akhtaruzzaman Elias, Aravind Adiga, H. M. Naqvi, Mohsin Hamid, Arundhati Roy, and Amitav Ghosh, whose works offer representations of some the most pervasive features of neoliberal capitalism: the monetization of consciousness and the subjugation of affect; uneven spatial development and the suppression of utopian impulses; the financialization of economy and the systemic production of the surplus population. In my concluding chapter, I point towards a paradigm shift, suggesting that the destruction of the planetary web of life and the systemic production of xenophobic racism allow us to see how the effects of neoliberalization have snowballed into a set of calamitous crises in today’s late neoliberal era—crises that have been compellingly explored by some recent works of fiction. Standing amidst the ruins of neoliberalism, I argue, South Asian fictions in the last three decades have provided penetrating, and at times conflicting, accounts of our lives and times. The neoliberal allegories I analyze in the dissertation, afford us a critical vantage on the contemporary modes through which capital relentlessly exploits labor; they also bring into purview the “optimism of the will” of the ordinary people who dare to envision a post-neoliberal future and put in efforts to create a world built on the foundations of economic justice and empathy

Clay Mineralogy of the Soils above Basalt from Azraq Area , Jordan

Twelve clay samples were taken from three pits below the basaltic loose veneer rubble down to the basaltic bedrock in order to discuss the origin of the clay minerals in relation to the origin of the soil. The non-clay minerals present are: quartz, calcite and feldspar which are abundant in all soil samples. The basaltic bedrock as well as the loose fragments are made up of fresh basalt. There is a sharp contact between both the basalt fragments and the soil. The clay minerals are: palygorskite, kaolinite and a mixed-layer of illite/smectite. These were observed in the distribution of the clay minerals, and no transitional phases were observed along the pits. The clay minerals were formed by the effect of wind-blowing /detrital and transported. Consequently, soil accumulation north of Azraq Al-Druze seems to be wind blown and not due to basalt alterations

The Impact of the Perceived Services Quality on Customer Loyalty in the Jordanian Mobile Telecom Companies

This study aims to examine the impact of the perceived quality of the services provided by the Jordanian mobile telecom companies on customer loyalty, also this study aimed to determine the most important classifications of perceived quality measurement. A questionnaire has been used as a tool to collect data from the industrial companies. In addition, the study hypotheses were tested using a simple linear regression analysis. The study found out the existence of positive impact of the perceived services quality dimensions (Tangibility, Reliability, Responsiveness, Safety and Empathy) on customer loyalty, except responsiveness dimension, which did not show a statistically significant in this study. Hence, top management in these companies need to work on increase the interest of the tangible aspects of the service quality, and achieving the requirements responsiveness dimension, and reduce waiting times at the reception office and the telephone service centers