Market-places and urbanization of Serbia at the end of the Middle Аge and at the beginning of the early Modern Аge

Тргови су посебан тип насеља које карактерише појачана робна размена и неаграрна привреда. Именица трг потиче од општесловенског термина чије је првобитно значење било роба. Из овог значења развила су се друга: место где се вршила робна размена, место у центру насеља где су се укрштали путеви и окупљало становништво, и, на крају, посебан тип насеља. Из основног развила су се и друга значења: трговина као процес и као објекат, тржиште, тржница, трговиште, трговац. Карактеристика свих изведених именице јесте процес који их обједињава, а то је робна размена. Први тргови у средњовековним српским земљама јављају у сеоским насељима. Kасније, обновом старих градова и развојем привреде, пре свега трговине и рударства, тргови су се усталили у урбаним насељима. У средњовековној Србији разликујемо три зоне и три основна типа урбаних насеља – градова: приморски, јужни и централни. У раду је обрађена централна зона у којој су Срби дали највећи утицај на настанак и развој тргова, као посебног типа урбаних насеља. Градови су носиоци цивилизације, а српски средњовековни тргови представљају чиниоце и огледало развоја српске средњовековне државе. На основу настанка разликујемо следеће типове тргова: манастирски, руднички, тргови на месту караванских станица и тргови у старим градовима, на раскршћу путева и подножју утврђења. Урбанизација је процес који карактерише природни или механички прираштај становништва у насељима неаграрног типа. Процес захвата читаво друштво, а не само градска насеља у којима су промене очигледне и највидљивије, дешавају се и у насељима која не припадају урбаним. Процес урбанизације у средњовековној Србији текао је убрзано од средине XIII, а врхунац је доживео у првој половини XV века. Значајан допринос дали су му Дубровчани и Саси, носиоци трговине и рударства. Неповољне политичке прилике XV века нису могле да прекину овај процес – он се постепено гасио тек са доласком Турака, који најзначајније центре у окупираним областима нису сместили у тргове као најразвијенија насеља, већ у утврђења. Тиме процес урбанизације, уз уплив оријенталних елемената и ратну орјентацију привреде, поприма другачије облике.Market-places are a special type of settlements characterized by a reinforced exchange of merchandise and non-agrarian economy. The noun trg (market-place) stems from general Slavic term whose original meaning was merchandise. Out of this meaning other ones were developed: place where merchandise exchange was carried out, places in the centre of settlement where roads were being crossed and population being gathered, and, in the end, a special type of settlement. Out of the basic meaning, other ones were developed: trade as a process and subject, market-place, market-hall, places where trade is carried out, and merchant. The characteristic of all deduced nouns is the process which unifies them, and it is the exchange of merchandise. The first market-places in the medieval Serbian countries appeared in rural settlements. Later on, by renewal of the old towns and development of economy, first of all trade and mining, market-places were established in urban settlements. In medieval Serbia three zones and three basic types of urban settlements (towns) are differentiated: coastal, southern and central. This paper dealt with central zone in which Serbs had had the highest impact on the appearance and development of market-places, as a special type of urban settlements. Towns are the holders of civilization, and Serbian medieval market-places represent factors and reflection of the development of Serbian medieval state. According to the appearance, the following types of market-places are differentiated: monastic, mining, market-places at the places of caravan’s stations, and the ones in old towns, at the crossroads and foots of the fortifications. Urbanization is a process characterized by the natural or mechanical increase of population in the settlements of non-agrarian type. The process is taking hold of the whole society, not only urban settlements in which the changes are to be evident and the most visible, and they occur in settlements not belonging to the urban ones. The urbanization process in medieval Serbia from the middle of the 13th century was running in an accelerated manner, and lived to see its culmination in the first half of the 15th century. A great contribution was given to it by Dubrovčani and Sasi, holders of trade and mining. Unfavourable political circumstances of the 15th century could not interrupt this process – it was being gone out step by step with the arrival of the Turks, whom had not put the most important centres in the occupied areas in market-places as the most developed settlements, but in the fortifications. So the urbanization process, by the influence of oriental elements and war-like orientation of economy, is getting different forms

Auto Rate Fallback (ARF) algorithm for wireless connection according to the standard 802.11g.

Táto bakalářská práce se zabývá problematikou adaptačních protokolů a jejich implementaci. V této bakalářské práci je proveden popis fyzické a MAC vrstvy standardu 802.11g a teoretický rozbor adaptačních protokolů ARF a AARF. Dále práce popisuje postup tvorby modelu sítě vhodné pro testování a ověření vlastnosti adaptačních protokolů v simulačním prostředí NS-3 (Network Simulator 3). V poslední části jsou popsány výsledky simulace a zpracovány do vhodných grafů.This bachelor thesis deals with problems of adaptation protocols and their implementation. In this bachelor thesis are described physical and MAC layers of standard 802.11g and theoretical analysis of adaptation protocols ARF and AARF. Further, the thesis describes the process of creating a network model suitable for testing and verifying the properties of adaptive protocols in the simulation environment NS-3 (Network Simulator 3). In the last part, the simulation results are described and processed into suitable graphs.

The foundation and work of the Serbian bookstore in Thessaloniki (1890-1896)

At the end of the 19th century, diplomatic activity of the Kingdom of Serbia was reinforced. It had especially come to the fore when in 1886 Stojan Novaković was appointed as the deputy in Constantinople. He, as an experienced diplomat, realized the significance of the national idea spreading, and worked actively to that end. After the signing of consular convention, and opening of Serbian consulates in Osman's Empire, conditions for the opening of larger number of schools were created for which the permissions from Turkish authorities were to be acquired. As the number of Serbian pupils increased, and the numbers of schools as well, the issue of books supply was raised, which was not easy at all in that time. Turkish government issued the permission in 1890 that books for Serbian schools should be printed in Constantinople. All books which were to be printed had to pass the censorship of the Educational Committee. Thanks to the reinforced Serbian diplomatic activity in spreading the national idea, some shifts were made, which led representatives of Serbs in Osman's Empire to the idea of opening bookstores. Almost in the same time, bookstores in Priština, Prizren, and Thessaloniki were opened. The bookstore in Thessaloniki bore the official title the Serbian bookstore, and managed to work and survive despite the propaganda of Bulgarian exarchists which tried to thwart its existence frequently by associating with Turkish authorities. The business activity report was filed to the Consulate, which regulated its activities through contracts and measures

Velika Hoča and the beginning of the church estate in Metohija

Immediately after the foundation of the Hilandar, Simeon Nemanja had granted it an estate in the surrounding of Prizren which consisted of nine villages, two vineyards, four apiaries, market place, 170 families of cattlemen (Vlahs) and other gains. The centre of that estate was to be found in the village of Gornja (today Velika Hoča). This settlement got the status of market place where goods manufactured at monastery's estate were being sold, and all other goods. The main export-oriented product of this Hilandar's estate was vine. The importance of Hilandar made other Serbian rulers create new monasteries in the surrounding of his estate. Therefore, there are estates of Bishop's Chair of Virgin Ljeviška from Prizren, monastery of St. Archangels, Dečani, and Petar Koriški are being met in this area. It is little known that the monastery of Studenica had its estate at this area as well. The reason for this is the destroyed Monastery's Chart. Based on the other charts we are able to partially reconstruct the estate of this important monastery. The existence of the two most important monasteries' estates in this area including a favourable geographic position made a lot of rulers create church estates here, which gave the whole area the name of Metohija

The battle at Pantino at 1168 and the unity of the Serbian state

The battle near the village of Pantino represents a turning point in the development of the Serbian medieval state. It cannot be stated with certainty when it took place, although it is asserted with great probability it happened in 1168. In this battle Stefan Nemanja defeated his brothers assisted with Byzantine's army, soldiers of fortune Turks, Frugus (Franks) and other peoples and finally ascended the throne of the great prefect of Serbia. The battle near Pantino is important due to the fact that it, directly or indirectly, found the place with great Byzantine's writers such as Joannes Kinamos and Niketas Choniates and with Nemanja's hagiography writers Stefan the First Crowned ad Domentian. Besides the above mentioned, data of this battle are fragmentized and modest and they do not give the opportunity to describe it more thoroughly. It was noticed a long time ago the battle represented a turning point for further development of Serbian medieval state, not only in political, military and organizational way but in symbolic as well. After the battle in which Stefan Nemanja defeated his brothers, the situation in Serbia became more clearer and calmer. The changes on the throne stopped happening, which after Uroš II had been so frequent. In this battle Stefan Nemanja, from the favorite of the basileus Manuel, who had just given him the area of Dubočica, and the title of "tsar's dream", became his opponent. Nemanja is appearing in it as the fighter for the state unity, contrary to his brothers whom supported by Byzantine, are struggling for sharing parts division and preservation of the previous state in which basileos had decisively influenced the great prefect choice. By his victory he achieved that the state became unique, and he came to power against the will of the basileus Manuel. The victory in the battle near Pantino reflected on the fundraising activity of Stefan Nemanja. Symbolic of the built monasteries of St. George in Ras and Studenica speaks on military victory over the enemies and on the established state unity

Ostatija or ostraca?

In the letter of Pope Clement VI, which is addressed to the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan on January 7, 1346, the places from the interior of Serbia, where Roman-Catholic parishes were settled, were listed. The letter is significant for many reasons, among other things, because it bears testimony to the process of urbanization on the territory of medieval Serbia. Settlements mentioned in the letter were urban places proved by the existence of Roman-Catholic communities in them. These communities consisted of Saxons and Latins, i.e. the miners of German origin and tradesmen who arrived from Primorje (cities on the east coast of Adriatic Sea). The letter was written in Latin, with the names of places in the way the Pope and his secretariat interpreted them, due to which, as well as due to the lack of other historical sources, their identification was made difficult. Owing to the significance, the letter was noticed early on and was frequently quoted. Nevertheless, the identification of certain places has still remained the same. One of the places that many researchers disputed over, which even nowadays still raises doubts, is Ostacia, as it is written in the letter. An extraordinary expert in Serbian history and the initiator of historical-geographic researches, Konstantin Jireček, mentioned this place as the village Ostraca, on the western slopes of Kopaonik. He confirmed his findings, among other things, in the Charter of the nun Jevgenija (princess Milica) and her sons Stefan and Vuk, which was willed in 1400 to the monastery of Saint Panteleimon on the Mount Athos; the Charter mentioned Ostraca together with a well-known mine and a marketplace Koporice. Jireček did not change his opinion even after the publication of paper by Avram Popovic, who accepted the identification Ostraca, but also said that there were no remains of mining activities in this village. Afterwards, most researchers accepted Jireček's opinion. An important researcher of historical geography and mining economy in medieval Serbia, Mihailo Dinic, on the grounds of the absence of mining activities in Ostraca, as well as the toponymy and similarity of names, came to the conclusion that it was actually the place Ostatija in the spring area of the river Studenica on the mountain of Golija. Field research of the geologist Vasilije Simic confirmed Dinic's attitude. Nevertheless, Jireček's opinion still prevails in the research studies. The main opinions are supported by arguments as to why Ostacia from the Pope's letter should be identified with Ostatija. The paper also points out the reasons due to which identification with Ostraca still persists in the literature

Estates of Chilandar's pyrgos Hrusia (Chryseia) in Kosovo and Metohija in the middle ages

The Monastery of Chilandar and his monks, during the first century of existence, encountered various hardships. The big issue for them were the pirates, who often attacked, plundered, took monks into slavery and then sold or ransomed them. Such a problem existed on Mount Athos long before St. Sava and his father Simeon raised Chilandar in 1198. After a turbulent XIII century, which brought frequent changes of borders, King Milutin stabilized the country and its relations with its neighbors, notably Byzantium. The result was a marriage with the Byzantine princess Simonis Palaiologina and obtaining more conquered territories as her dowry. Soon afterwards, he addressed the request of the monks of Chilandar to provide them with some protection against pirates 'because their whole life at sea.' Milutin accepted the invitation and early fourteenth century raised their pyrgos Chryseia. The pyrgos was part of Chilandar, which had the obligation to support the monks. Thanks to good relations with the king Milutin, at whose request was probably elected the first abbot, Simeon, the monks of pyrgos began to independently acquire properties. This was helped by Andronikos II and Michael IX, Emperor and Regent of Byzantium, who at the request of their son/brother in law - King Milutin, confirm or give their contributions to the pyrgos. The pyrgos grew stronger and richer, and became independent from the Chilandar monastery, which led to disputes between them. The conflict particularly deteriorated in the second half of the XIV century - after the death of the Emperor Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, culminating in a trial at the court of the Diocese of Serres, in 1388. The judges ruled that the pyrgos was subordinated to the monastery of Chilandar, and that it cannot be independent. By a charter from the period dating from 1336 to 1344, Stefan IV Dušan gave estates in Kosovo and Metohia to the pirgos of Chryseia. These estates consisted of two parts: the first was in Kosovo and included the Church of the Holy Virgin in Lipljan, the village Slovinje with 23 families of dependent people, and the revenues of the market in Lipljan, when it was organized to celebrate the days of the church. A charter describes the boundaries of the village, so we know where that land property was located. It was on the East of Lipljan, between the villages of Gušterica and Smoluša. These villages still exist with the same names. The second part of the estate was located in the North of Metohija, in the area of Metohisjki Podgor. It included half of a vineyard, a piary, a meadow and several large parts of land which were located between the villages of Žakovo, Suvo Grlo, Banje, Rudnik and Kostrc. Since all these villages still exist with the same names, it is easy to determine where the slump was. This slump was managed by the oikonomos, which means it was unique. These estates were confirmed by the Emperor Dušan in the General Chilandar charter of 1348. This ruler gifted the pyrgos with 1000 perpera of silver from Novo Brdo. Pyrgos fell into problems after the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, when the estates south of the Šar mountains fell under the rule of the Turks. The situation worsened when Prince Lazar took possession of Lipljan, because the Pyrgos' monks did not comply with the agreement that they had to build defenses against the Turks, and stole the money and gifts the Prince had given them for this aim. The danger which threatened united the monks of the monastery and the pyrgos, and after the Battle of Kosovo, together they sake contribution from Princess Milica and her sons Stefan and Vuk. She accepted and donated villages in the area of Morava in the South-East of Kosovo. The documents does not provide information about what happened to the estates of pyrgos Chryseia in the fifteenth century. We think that they survived while the Lazarevic and Brankovic ruled in these parts, up to the year 1455

Key features of crop insurance in Serbia

Crop insurance differs from other types of insurance coverage. It provides insurance protection for food production, which, being one the preconditions for survival of humanity, has been exposed to numerous devastating natural risks to a considerable extent. Due to its importance, crop insurance has been the subject of various scientific studies, so the literature from this area is extensive. Unlike many other products, the emerging countries are major food producers. That is why the open issues regarding crop insurance are of immense importance to them, too. Serbia is among the countries that have extremely good preconditions for food production. In this paper, the level of development of Serbian crop insurance has been estimated by using the indicators such as coverage of agricultural land by insurance protection, value of production on the insured land, written premium, damaged land, the amount of incurred claims, and loss ratio. The achievements in this line of insurance have also been compared with certain European countries, the majority of which is still undergoing transition, like Serbia. The values of nearly all indicators point to extremely poor development of crop insurance in Serbia. Both the state and the insurance companies should take key role in improving the current situation, which has also been the case in the more developed countries. The analysis conducted in this paper indicates that the state should provide general preconditions for better utilization of insurance, particularly premium subsidies. It is up to the insurance companies to apply the code of practice as consistently as possible, including the state of the art achievements in crop insurance worldwide

Conservation of resources in the pulp and paper industry derived from cleaner production approach

This paper analyses the utilization of water and recycled fiber from waste paper for the production in one Serbian cardboard mill. Water and fiber consumption, wastewater generation and its characteristics, as well as sludge recirculation were monitored during production of various paper types, with different grade and weight. The aim was to evaluate production rationality and running stability concerning water and fiber utilization and possibilities for their conservation. Cleaner production measures inside the mill and in the effluent treatment plant were suggested for the improvement of wastewater quality and water conservation. Savings in water and fibers were estimated, with the respect to economic and environmental aspects of proposed cleaner production measures