Leaf versus whole-canopy remote sensing methodologies for crop monitoring under conservation agriculture: a case of study with maize in Zimbabwe

Enhancing nitrogen fertilization efficiency for improving yield is a major challenge for smallholder farming systems. Rapid and cost-effective methodologies with the capability to assess the effects of fertilization are required to facilitate smallholder farm management. This study compares maize leaf and canopy-based approaches for assessing N fertilization performance under different tillage, residue coverage and top-dressing conditions in Zimbabwe. Among the measurements made on individual leaves, chlorophyll readings were the best indicators for both N content in leaves (R < 0.700) and grain yield (GY) (R < 0.800). Canopy indices reported even higher correlation coefficients when assessing GY, especially those based on the measurements of the vegetation density as the green area indices (R < 0.850). Canopy measurements from both ground and aerial platforms performed very similar, but indices assessed from the UAV performed best in capturing the most relevant information from the whole plot and correlations with GY and leaf N content were slightly higher. Leaf-based measurements demonstrated utility in monitoring N leaf content, though canopy measurements outperformed the leaf readings in assessing GY parameters, while providing the additional value derived from the affordability and easiness of using a pheno-pole system or the high-throughput capacities of the UAVs

Evaluating maize genotype performance under low nitrogen conditions using RGB UAV phenotyping techniques

Maize is the most cultivated cereal in Africa in terms of land area and production, but low soil nitrogen availability often constrains yields. Developing new maize varieties with high and reliable yields using traditional crop breeding techniques in field conditions can be slow and costly. Remote sensing has become an important tool in the modernization of field-based high-throughput plant phenotyping (HTPP), providing faster gains towards the improvement of yield potential and adaptation to abiotic and biotic limiting conditions. We evaluated the performance of a set of remote sensing indices derived from red–green–blue (RGB) images along with field-based multispectral normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD values) as phenotypic traits for assessing maize performance under managed low-nitrogen conditions. HTPP measurements were conducted from the ground and from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). For the ground-level RGB indices, the strongest correlations to yield were observed with hue, greener green area (GGA), and a newly developed RGB HTPP index, NDLab (normalized difference Commission Internationale de I´Edairage (CIE)Lab index), while GGA and crop senescence index (CSI) correlated better with grain yield from the UAV. Regarding ground sensors, SPAD exhibited the closest correlation with grain yield, notably increasing in its correlation when measured in the vegetative stage. Additionally, we evaluated how different HTPP indices contributed to the explanation of yield in combination with agronomic data, such as anthesis silking interval (ASI), anthesis date (AD), and plant height (PH). Multivariate regression models, including RGB indices (R2 > 0.60), outperformed other models using only agronomic parameters or field sensors (R2 > 0.50), reinforcing RGB HTPP’s potential to improve yield assessments. Finally, we compared the low-N results to the same panel of 64 maize genotypes grown under optimal conditions, noting that only 11% of the total genotypes appeared in the highest yield producing quartile for both trials. Furthermore, we calculated the grain yield loss index (GYLI) for each genotype, which showed a large range of variability, suggesting that low-N performance is not necessarily exclusive of high productivity in optimal conditions.This research and APC was funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and USAID Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa program, grant number [OPP1134248], and the MAIZE CGIAR research program. The CGIAR Research Program MAIZE receives W1&W2 support from the Governments of Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, France, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, U.K., U.S., and the World Bank

Elevated CO2 concentration around alfalfa nodules increases N2 fixation

Nodule CO2 fixation via PEPC provides malate for bacteroids and oxaloacetate for N assimilation. The process is therefore of central importance for efficient nitrogen fixation. Nodule CO2 fixation is known to depend on external CO2 concentration. The hypothesis of the present paper was that nitrogen fixation in alfalfa plants is enhanced when the nodules are exposed to elevated CO2 concentrations. Therefore nodulated plants of alfalfa were grown in a hydroponic system that allowed separate aeration of the root/nodule compartment that avoided any gas leakage to the shoots. The root/nodule compartments were aerated either with a 2500 μl l−1 (+CO2) or zero μl l−1 (–CO2) CO2-containing N2/O2 gas flow (80/20, v/v). Nodule CO2 fixation, nitrogen fixation, and growth were strongly increased in the +CO2 treatment in a 3-week experimental period. More intensive CO2 and nitrogen fixation coincided with higher per plant amounts of amino acids and organic acids in the nodules. Moreover, the concentration of asparagine was increased in both the nodules and the xylem sap. Plants in the +CO2 treatment tended to develop nodules with higher %N concentration and individual activity. In a parallel experiment on plants with inefficient nodules (fix–) the +CO2 treatment remained without effect. Our data support the thesis that nodule CO2 fixation is pivotal for efficient nitrogen fixation. It is concluded that strategies which enhance nodule CO2 fixation will improve nitrogen fixation and nodule formation. Moreover, sufficient CO2 application to roots and nodules is necessary for growth and efficient nitrogen fixation in hydroponic and aeroponic growth systems

Comparative Performance of Ground vs. Aerially Assessed RGB and Multispectral Indices for Early-Growth Evaluation of Maize Performance under Phosphorus Fertilization

Low soil fertility is one of the factors most limiting agricultural production, with phosphorus deficiency being among the main factors, particularly in developing countries. To deal with such environmental constraints, remote sensing measurements can be used to rapidly assess crop performance and to phenotype a large number of plots in a rapid and cost-effective way. We evaluated the performance of a set of remote sensing indices derived from Red-Green-Blue (RGB) images and multispectral (visible and infrared) data as phenotypic traits and crop monitoring tools for early assessment of maize performance under phosphorus fertilization. Thus, a set of 26 maize hybrids grown under field conditions in Zimbabwe was assayed under contrasting phosphorus fertilization conditions. Remote sensing measurements were conducted in seedlings at two different levels: at the ground and from an aerial platform. Within a particular phosphorus level, some of the RGB indices strongly correlated with grain yield. In general, RGB indices assessed at both ground and aerial levels correlated in a comparable way with grain yield except for indices a* and u*, which correlated better when assessed at the aerial level than at ground level and Greener Area (GGA) which had the opposite correlation. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) evaluated at ground level with an active sensor also correlated better with grain yield than the NDVI derived from the multispectral camera mounted in the aerial platform. Other multispectral indices like the Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) performed very similarly to NDVI assessed at the aerial level but overall, they correlated in a weaker manner with grain yield than the best RGB indices. This study clearly illustrates the advantage of RGB-derived indices over the more costly and time-consuming multispectral indices. Moreover, the indices best correlated with GY were in general those best correlated with leaf phosphorous content. However, these correlations were clearly weaker than against grain yield and only under low phosphorous conditions. This work reinforces the effectiveness of canopy remote sensing for plant phenotyping and crop management of maize under different phosphorus nutrient conditions and suggests that the RGB indices are the best option

Comparative performance of ground vs. aerially assessed RGB and multispectral indices for early-growth evaluation of maize performance under phosphorus fertilization

Low soil fertility is one of the factors most limiting agricultural production, with phosphorus deficiency being among the main factors, particularly in developing countries. To deal with such environmental constraints, remote sensing measurements can be used to rapidly assess crop performance and to phenotype a large number of plots in a rapid and cost-effective way. We evaluated the performance of a set of remote sensing indices derived from Red-Green-Blue (RGB) images and multispectral (visible and infrared) data as phenotypic traits and crop monitoring tools for early assessment of maize performance under phosphorus fertilization. Thus, a set of 26 maize hybrids grown under field conditions in Zimbabwe was assayed under contrasting phosphorus fertilization conditions. Remote sensing measurements were conducted in seedlings at two different levels: at the ground and from an aerial platform. Within a particular phosphorus level, some of the RGB indices strongly correlated with grain yield. In general, RGB indices assessed at both ground and aerial levels correlated in a comparable way with grain yield except for indices a* and u*, which correlated better when assessed at the aerial level than at ground level and Greener Area (GGA) which had the opposite correlation. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) evaluated at ground level with an active sensor also correlated better with grain yield than the NDVI derived from the multispectral camera mounted in the aerial platform. Other multispectral indices like the Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) performed very similarly to NDVI assessed at the aerial level but overall, they correlated in a weaker manner with grain yield than the best RGB indices. This study clearly illustrates the advantage of RGB-derived indices over the more costly and time-consuming multispectral indices. Moreover, the indices best correlated with GY were in general those best correlated with leaf phosphorous content. However, these correlations were clearly weaker than against grain yield and only under low phosphorous conditions. This work reinforces the effectiveness of canopy remote sensing for plant phenotyping and crop management of maize under different phosphorus nutrient conditions and suggests that the RGB indices are the best option

Evaluating the Performance of Different Commercial and Pre-Commercial Maize Varieties under Low Nitrogen Conditions Using Affordable Phenotyping Tools

Maize is the most commonly cultivated cereal in Africa in terms of land area and production. Low yields in this region are very often associated with issues related to low Nitrogen (N), such as low soil fertility or low fertilizer availability. Developing new maize varieties with high and reliable yields in actual field conditions using traditional crop breeding techniques can be slow and costly. Remote sensing has become an important tool in the modernization of field-based High Throughput Plant Phenotyping (HTPP), providing faster gains towards improved yield potential, adaptation to abiotic (water stress, extreme temperatures, and salinity) and biotic (susceptibility to pests and diseases) limiting conditions, and even quality traits. We evaluated the performance of a set of remote sensing indices derived from Red-Green-Blue (RGB) images and the performance of the field-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and SPAD as phenotypic traits and crop monitoring tools for assessing maize performance under managed low nitrogen conditions. Phenotyping measurements were conducted on maize plants at two different levels: on the ground and from an airborne UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) platform. For the RGB indices assessed at the ground level, the strongest correlations compared to yield were observed with Hue, GGA (Greener Green Area), and GA (Green Area) at the ground level, while GGA and CSI (Crop Senescence Index) were better correlated with grain yield at the aerial level. Regarding the field sensors, SPAD exhibited the closest correlation with grain yield, with a higher correlation when measured closer to anthesis. Additionally, we evaluated how these different HTPP data contributed to the improvement of multivariate estimations of crop yield in combination with traditional agronomic field data, such as ASI (Anthesis Silking Data), AD (Anthesis Data), and Plant Height (PH). All multivariate regression models with an R2 higher than 0.50 included one or more of these three agronomic parameters as predictive parameters, but with RGB indices at both levels increased to R2 over 0.60. As such, this research suggests that traditional agronomic data provide information related to grain yield in abiotic stress conditions, but that they may be potentially supplemented by RGB indices from either ground or UAV phenotyping platforms. Finally, in comparison to the same panel of maize varieties grown under optimal conditions, only 11% of the varieties that were in the highest yield-producing quartile under optimal N conditions remained in the highest quartile when grown under managed low N conditions, suggesting that specific breeding for low N tolerance can still produce gains, but that low N productivity is also not necessarily exclusive of high productivity in optimal conditions

A novel remote sensing approach for prediction of maize yield under different conditions of nitrogen fertilization

Maize crop production is constrained worldwide by nitrogen (N) availability and particularly in poor tropical and subtropical soils. The development of affordable high-throughput crop monitoring and phenotyping techniques is key to improving maize cultivation under low-N fertilization. In this study several vegetation indices (VIs) derived from Red-Green-Blue (RGB) digital images at the leaf and canopy levels are proposed as low-cost tools for plant breeding and fertilization management. They were compared with the performance of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measured at ground level and from an aerial platform, as well as with leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) and other leaf composition and structural parameters at flowering stage. A set of 10 hybrids grown under five different nitrogen regimes and adequate water conditions were tested at the CIMMYT station of Harare (Zimbabwe). Grain yield and leaf N concentration across N fertilization levels were strongly predicted by most of these RGB indices (with R2~ 0.7), outperforming the prediction power of the NDVI and LCC. RGB indices also outperformed the NDVI when assessing genotypic differences in grain yield and leaf N concentration within a given level of N fertilization. The best predictor of leaf N concentration across the five N regimes was LCC but its performance within N treatments was inefficient. The leaf traits evaluated also seemed inefficient as phenotyping parameters. It is concluded that the adoption of RGB-based phenotyping techniques may significantly contribute to the progress of plant breeding and the appropriate management of fertilization

Evaluating maize genotype performance under low nitrogen conditions using RGB UAV phenotyping techniques

Maize is the most cultivated cereal in Africa in terms of land area and production, but low soil nitrogen availability often constrains yields. Developing new maize varieties with high and reliable yields using traditional crop breeding techniques in field conditions can be slow and costly. Remote sensing has become an important tool in the modernization of field-based high-throughput plant phenotyping (HTPP), providing faster gains towards the improvement of yield potential and adaptation to abiotic and biotic limiting conditions. We evaluated the performance of a set of remote sensing indices derived from red–green–blue (RGB) images along with field-based multispectral normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD values) as phenotypic traits for assessing maize performance under managed low-nitrogen conditions. HTPP measurements were conducted from the ground and from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). For the ground-level RGB indices, the strongest correlations to yield were observed with hue, greener green area (GGA), and a newly developed RGB HTPP index, NDLab (normalized difference Commission Internationale de I´Edairage (CIE)Lab index), while GGA and crop senescence index (CSI) correlated better with grain yield from the UAV. Regarding ground sensors, SPAD exhibited the closest correlation with grain yield, notably increasing in its correlation when measured in the vegetative stage. Additionally, we evaluated how different HTPP indices contributed to the explanation of yield in combination with agronomic data, such as anthesis silking interval (ASI), anthesis date (AD), and plant height (PH). Multivariate regression models, including RGB indices (R2 > 0.60), outperformed other models using only agronomic parameters or field sensors (R2 > 0.50), reinforcing RGB HTPP’s potential to improve yield assessments. Finally, we compared the low-N results to the same panel of 64 maize genotypes grown under optimal conditions, noting that only 11% of the total genotypes appeared in the highest yield producing quartile for both trials. Furthermore, we calculated the grain yield loss index (GYLI) for each genotype, which showed a large range of variability, suggesting that low-N performance is not necessarily exclusive of high productivity in optimal conditions