Viktige faktorar for å etablera eit varig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania

The overall objective of this thesis was to develop building blocks essential for establishing a sustainable dairy goat breeding program in Tanzania. To fulfil this objective, three approaches were employed. This included field survey (paper I &II), simulation study (paper III) and on-farm experiment and lesson learnt (paper IV). The production systems optimization in paper I showed that dairy goat production brings assurance of less variation in production income in the long term compared to other production systems. However, to achieve this in Tanzania it is necessary to purchase more concentrate feed and implement goat breeding principles. Paper II found that of the 125 respondents, many (35.2%) keep dairy goats for milk production, as many as 30.6% to obtain offspring and sell them, and 24.1% of the respondents emphasized the value of manure. In the study areas, manure was sold to obtain income. High producing goats (33.7%), tolerance to diseases (20%), and high twinning ability (14%) were the most preferred traits by respondents. In addition, the farmers lack knowledge on selection, recording, and animal identification. Paper III found that testing between 20 and 30 bucks per year could lead to a good breeding program with acceptable level of accuracy under local conditions in Tanzania. Testing 30 bucks per year is recommended for Mgeta. Part of paper III also outlines elements necessary for breeding program sustainability. A schematic figure is included to illustrate how selection can be performed through progeny testing to fit current situation in Mgeta. The SWOT analysis in paper IV reveals that Tanzania has a potential for dairy goat development. Strengths are: good policy, presence of research and academic institutions, readiness of private sectors to participate in the dairy goat industry, availability of resources, and that many rural famers already own dairy goats. Weaknesses are: insufficient support from the government, low formal education of farmers, lack of clear breeding goals, and lack of sustainability of breeding selection programs established. These pull back progress in the dairy goat sector. However, there are several opportunities such that information towards solving the limitations are available. In Europe, for example, they seem to do better with animal breeding programs. Quality genetic materials from these successful programs can be accessed by other countries like Tanzania through markets, given that the policy allows. On these grounds in paper IV, occasional import of dairy goat semen for AI to use in a nucleus breeding herd is proposed. Both bucks and female offspring born in such a herd may be supplied to farmers. Quality dairy goats is already a business in Tanzania, hence participation of private sectors in the industry should be encouraged. The government and academic institutions may be watchdogs of what should be happening regarding dairy goats in the country. Threats may include change in policy regarding export/import of buck semen, farmers’ willingness to pay for price of quality bucks, and how quick the market for surplus milk is growing, and participation of milk processors and marketing of derived products. This thesis proposes possibilities of establishing dairy goat breeding program under small scale farms in Tanzania given that better on-farm recording systems including pedigree information is developed. Setting clear breeding goals with a few traits, e.g. milk yield and survival in this case, is recommended. Because of the various practical options and accessibility to new knowledge, it is necessary to revise breeding schemes from time to time. Lastly, this thesis raises the question; ”How many dairy goat breeds are needed in Tanzania?”. This can be a future TALIRI job.Det overordna målet for denne avhandlinga var å utvikla byggjesteinar som er essensielle for å etablera eit bærekraftig avlsprogram for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. For å nå dette målet, blei tre angrepsmåtar brukt: feltstudiar (artikkel I & II), simuleringsstudie (artikkel III) og utprøving i felt og kunnskapsinnsamling (artikkel IV). I arbeidet med å optimalisera produksjonssystemet (artikkel I) viste eg at mjølkeproduksjon fører til mindre variasjon i produksjonsinntekt på lang sikt enn andre produksjonssystem. Men for å oppnå dette i Tanzania bør ein kjøpa meir kraftfôr og nytta moderne avlsprinsipp. I artikkel II fann eg at av dei 125 respondentane, ville mange (35,2%) ha ei geit med høg mjølkeproduksjon. Så mange som 30,6% vil ha fleire avkom per geit (mange tvillingar), og 24,1% av respondentane understreka nytten av gjødsel frå geitene. I dei områda der respondentane blei intervjua blei gjødsel selt og utgjorde ei inntekt frå geitehaldet. Eigenskapar som ein ønskjer å endra var høgare mjølkeproduksjon (33,7%), sjukdomstoleranse (20%), og høgare tvillingfrekvens (14%). I tillegg mangla bøndene kunnskap om utval av avlsdyr, husdyrkontroll og individmerking. I artikkel III fann eg at testing av mellom 20 og 30 bukkar per år kan gje eit godt avlsprogram med akseptabel sikkerheit for å rekna ut avlsverdar. For Mgeta anbefaler vi testing av 30 bukkar per år. I artikkel III skisserte eg òg faktorar som er nødvendige for å få etablert eit varig avlsprogram. Eit skjema som illustrerer korleis eit avlsprogram med avkomsgransking av testbukkar i Mgeta kan gjennomførast er òg tatt med. SWOTanalysen i artikkel IV viser eg at Tanzania har potensiale for å utvikla mjølkeproduksjon på geit vidare. Styrkar i landet er ein god politikk, at det finst forskings- og akademiske institusjonar, at privat sektor er villig til å delta i sektoren, at fôrresursar finst, og at mange bønder alt eig mjølkegeiter. Svakhetar er at det ikkje er nok støtte frå regjeringa, bøndene har lite skulegang, mangel på klare avlsmål, og at avlstiltak ikkje varer. Dette bremsar framgangen i sektoren. Men løysingar på slike problem finst. I Europa, for eksempel, synest dei å lykkast med avlsprogram for husdyr. Genetisk kvalitetsmateriale frå desse vellykka programma kan andre land som Tanzania få del i ved kjøp, gitt at ein får løyve til det. Difor foreslår eg i artikkel IV sporadisk import av sæd for å bruka det i ein elitebuskap for mjølkegeit i Tanzania. Både bukkar og geitekje fødde i ein slik flokk kan seljast til bønder. Mjølkegeiter blir alt nå omsette i Tanzania og slike initiativ i privat sektor bør oppmuntrast. Offentleg sektor kan passa på kva som bør skje med mjølkegeiter i landet. Truslar kan vera endringar i politikken når det gjeld import av genetisk materiale, bønders vilje til å betala for verdifulle avlsdyr, kor raskt mjølkeomsetninga aukar og utvikling av meieri og omsetning av mjølkeprodukt. I denne avhandlinga foreslår eg mulege måtar å få til eit avlsprogram for mjølkegeit gjennom eit samarbeid mellom små mjølkeprodusentar i Tanzania. For å lukkast med dette må mjølkekontroll og individinformasjon innhentast på slike gardar. Klare avlsmål med få eigenskapar, for eksempel mjølkemengde og overleving, blir anbefalt. På grunn av kva som er praktisk mulig og tilgjengeleg kunnskap til ei kvar tid, er det nødvendig å revidere avlsprogram frå tid til anna. Til slutt reiser eg i avhandlinga spørsmålet: «Kor mange mjølkegeitrasar trengst i Tanzania?. Å svara på dette, kan vera ein jobb for forskarane som arbeider ved TALIRI.“Enhancing Pro-poor Innovation in Natural Resources and Agricultural Value Chains (EPINAV)” program supported by the Government of Norway at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) (grant No.1.1/06

Mfumo Faafu wa Ukonganyaji Istilahi za Sayansi na Teknolojia katika Kiswahili

Makala haya ya naonesha mfumo faafu wa ukonganyaji I stilahi za Sayansi na Teknolojia (kuanzia sasa IST) katika Kisw ahili . Uundaji wa istilahi  hususani katika lugha ya Kiswahili umeonekana kutilia mkazo zaidi katika mtazamo wa ukonganyaji istilahi mahususi. Mtazamo unaosisitiza  ukusanyaji istilahi kwa ajili ya uundaji istilahi kutokana na mwitikio wa wanaistilahi kutaka kuunda istilahi mpya. Pia, ukonganyaji huu ni ule wa  kuandaa kongoo ya istilahi kwa ajili uundaji istilahi. Hoja na mifano zilikusanywa kutokana na usomaji wa nyaraka hususani, nyaraka za BAKITA  (Istilahi za Kiswahili) na TATAKI (Kamusi Sanifu Biolojia Fi zikia na Kemia) na usaili. Hoja na mifano hiyo zinahalalisha umakinikiaji wa ukonganyaji  istilahi katika l ugha ya Kiswahili. Makala h aya ya najikita katika mtazamo wa ukonganyaji istilahi tarakibishi . Mtazamo una o sisitiza kanuni tatu za  kuzingatia; mosi, ukusanyaji istilahi wa kongoo; pili, ukusanyaji wa kanzidata ya istilahi na taarifa husianifu yaani, kwa lengo la kuanzisha benki ya  istilahi a u utunzi wa kamusi ya istilahi za kiufundi; na tatu, ukusanyaji istilahi wa uendelezaji stahilifu. Lengo la ukongan yaji istilahi kwa mkabala  huu ni kuwa na uundaji wa istilahi unaokidhi haja ya mawasiliano mahsusi katika nyanja husika. Hivyo, ukonganyaji huu utarekebisha ukonganyaji  uliopo sasa na kuwa na mfumo bora wa ukonganyaji istilahi za fani mbalimbali katika lugha ya Kiswahili.&nbsp

Particle Separation/Purification System, Diffuser and Related Methods

A separator and related separation methods are for intended use in separating particles having a selected charge from a particle mixture entrained in or carried by a fluid flow. The separator comprises a tubular, elongated body for receiving the fluid flow. At least one and preferably a pair of electrodes may be provided to create an electric field in at least a portion of the body through which the fluid flow passes, and at least one partition defines first and second channels for receiving the flow downstream of the portion of the body including the electric field. In one embodiment, the electrode is oriented such that a direction of gravity acting on particles having a selected charge passing through the electric field directs the selectively charged particles towards the first or second electrode. A system may incorporate the separator, along with a diffuser

Particle Separation/Purification System, Diffuser and Related Methods

A separator for intended use in separating particles having a selected charge from a particle mixture entrained in or carried by a fluid flow is disclosed. The separator comprises a tubular, elongated body for receiving the fluid flow. At least one and preferably a pair of electrodes may be provided to create an electric field in at least a portion of the body through which the fluid flow passes, and at least one partition defines first and second channels for receiving the flow downstream of the portion of the body including the electric field. In one embodiment, the electrode is oriented such that a direction of an electrical field force acting on particles having a selected charge passing through the electric field is not perpendicular to a direction of gravity. A system incorporating the separator is disclosed, along with a diffuser and related methods

Effects of Income and Price on Household's Charcoal Consumption in Three Cities of Tanzania

publishedVersio

Typology and characteristics of indigenous goats and production systems in different agro-ecological zones of Tanzania

Tanzania has a goat population of about 24.8 million most of which belong to the Small East African breed distributed in almost all agro-ecological zones. The different goat populations and the production system in which they are raised are not well characterized depriving animal breeders useful information in designing and running improvement and conservation programs. Therefore, the study was conducted in all agro-ecological zones in Tanzania to characterize the indigenous goats and the production system in which they are raised. Data on animals were collected from 688 randomly selected adult female goats and for production system description; 220 households were interviewed. Analysis of variance and discriminant analysis were used on quantitative data, while frequency analysis was used on qualitative data. Income generation and meat production were the primary goat rearing objectives. More than 55% of respondents grazed their animals freely in communal lands where natural pasture was the chief feed resource. Mating was mainly uncontrolled with apron and castration being used by goat keepers as mating control methods. Common diseases were contagious caprine pleural pneumonia and helminthiasis. Feed shortage, prevalence of diseases, and water scarcity were the major goat production constraints. There were morphological variations between and within these goat populations, and based on quantitative data, the goats were categorized into two groups. High twinning was observed in Ujiji and Lindi goats and low for Sukuma. The dominant coat color was plain white in Pare, Gogo, Maasai, and Tanga. Other coat color patterns were mixed black and white for Sukuma, reddish-brown for Lindi, black and reddish-brown for Ujiji, and white and reddish-brown for Pwani and Maasai. High within population variation is observed which is important as it can be used as a basis for genetic improvement through selection

Climate Change Adaptation in Vulnerable Crop and Livestock Production Systems in Mgeta, Tanzania

Awareness regarding effects of climate change on the environment and livelihoods is becoming more apparent than at any time before (Elisha, 2006). Among the farming systems that have attracted the attention in Tanzania, are those in Mgeta in thehigh altitude water catchment area in the Uluguru Mountains. Land degradation have been widely reported in Mgeta (Ponte, 2001), and is currently threatening the source of water for domestic use and livelihoods of the local communities. Increased occurrence of droughts and dry spells during the growing seasons might reinforce the problem. A robust cropping system toreplace the erosion vulnerable vegetables seems needed if agriculture is to persist in the area. Farmers in Mgeta grow vegetables in pure stand and in intercropping systems on bench terraces and in steep slopes, especially tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage, beans, green peas and maize. Besides, traditional goats (free roaming) and pigs are kept for meat and manure for the vegetables. In 1988, Norwegian dairy goats were introduced and currently farmers upgrade the local goats by crossing with dairy bucks. The dairy goats are tethered or kept indoors to avoid land degradation due to overgrazing. Expanding goat milk production might be advantageous since a market for milk, or milk products such as yoghurt, can be found both locally and in the neighboring towns. In this paper a traditional cropping-livestock system with meat goats and pigs and extensive vegetable production is compared with dairy goats and more use of multi-purpose trees (MPTs) and grass and less vegetables

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p

Heat Stress Effects on Physiological and Milk Yield Traits of Lactating Holstein Friesian Crossbreds Reared in Tanga Region, Tanzania

Global warming caused by climate change is a challenge for dairy farming, especially in sub-Saharan countries. Under high temperatures and relative humidity, lactating dairy cows suffer from heat stress. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects and relationship of heat stress (HS) measured by the temperature–humidity index (THI) regarding the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition of lactating Holstein Friesian crossbred dairy cows reared in the humid coastal region of Tanzania. A total of 29 lactating Holstein Friesian x Zebu crossbred dairy cows with 50% (HF50) and 75% (HF75) Holstein Friesian gene levels in the second and third months of lactation were used. The breed composition of Holstein Friesians was determined based on the animal recording system used at the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Tanga. The data collected included the daily temperature, relative humidity, daily milk yield, and physiological parameters (core body temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and panting score). THI was calculated using the equation of the National Research Council. The THI values were categorized into three classes, i.e., low THI (76–78), moderate THI (79–81), and high THI (82–84). The effects of THI on the physiological parameters and milk yield and composition were assessed. The effects of the genotype, the parity, the lactation month, and the interaction of these parameters with THI on the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters were also investigated. The results show that THI and its interaction with genotypes, parity, and the lactation month had a highly significant effect on all parameters. THI influenced (p ˂ 0.05) the average daily milk yield and milk fat %, protein %, lactose %, and solids–not–fat %. As the THI increased from moderate to high levels, the average daily milk yield declined from 3.49 ± 0.04 to 3.43 ± 0.05 L/day, while the fat % increased from 2.66 ± 0.05% to 3.04 ± 0.06% and the protein decreased from 3.15 ± 0.02% to 3.13 ± 0.03%. No decline in lactose % was observed, while the solid–not–fat % declined from 8.56 ± 0.08% to 8.55 ± 0.10% as the THI values increased from moderate to high. Also, the THI influenced physiological parameters (p ˂ 0.05). The core body temperature (CBT), rectal temperature (RT), respiratory rate (RR) and panting score (PS) increased from 35.60 ± 0.01 to 36.00 ± 0.01 °C, 38.03 ± 0.02 to 38.30 ± 0.02 °C, 62.53 ± 0.29 to 72.35 ± 0.28 breaths/min, and 1.35 ± 0.01 to 1.47 ± 0.09, respectively, as the THI increased from low to high. The THI showed a weak positive correlation with the average daily milk yield and fat percentage, whereas the protein, lactose, and solids–not–fat percentages showed negative relationships with THI (p ≤ 0.05). CBT, RT, RR, and PS showed positive relationships (p ≤ 0.05) with THI. These negative relationships indicate that there is an antagonistic correlation between sensitivity to HS and the level of production. It is concluded that the THI, the genotype, the parity, and the lactation month, along with their interactions with THI, significantly influenced the milk yield, milk composition, and physiological parameters of lactating Holstein Friesian dairy crosses at THI thresholds ranging from 77 to 84.</p