Non-conventionalized Generics and Exceptions

As is well known, research on generics is represented by three approaches: majority- based (Cohen 1996, 1999, 2004), normalcy-based (Nickel 2006; 2009; 2010a, b; 2013; 2016; 2018), and cognition-based (Leslie 2007a, b; 2008; 2013; 2017) approaches. Two recent approaches proposed by van Rooij and Schulz (2020) and Tessler and Goodman (2019) are more elaborated theories on generics, although neither of these approaches nor the three representative theories can fully account for various generics data, as argued by Yoon (2021). On the other hand, Nguyen (2020) proposes another theory of generics, the so-called ‘radical’ theory, which argues that the generic operator has no semantic content, and that the various quantificational interpretations of bare plural generics are determined contextually. In this context, the main purpose of this paper is to provide a critical review of some recently published analyses, including Nguyen’s theory, and to analyze non-conventionalized generics. While conventionalized or conceptualized generics have received much attention from researchers, non- conventionalized generics have not been studied as extensively. It will be argued that Nguyen’s theory simply transfers the burden onto pragmatics, and that non- conventionalized as well as conventionalized generics tend to be interpreted based on people’s perceptions of their exceptions, in line with Yoon (2021). This position will be supported by experimental results

Generic and Existential Readings of Bare Plurals, and Contextual Factors

Cohen and Erteschik-Shir (2002) propose that topic/focus structure determines the generic and existential interpretations of bare plurals. They propose that topic bare plurals are interpreted generically, whereas focused bare plurals are interpreted existentially. They further propose that individual/stage-level predicate distinction plus other predicate type distinctions, argument/adjunct distinction, and presuppositionallnon-presuppositional verb distinction play a role in determining the topic/focus structure of a sentence. If we delve into the data more closely, however, it is revealed that these proposed determining factors do not apply across the board. In this context, one purpose Df this paper is to point out some problems of Cohen and Erteschik-Shir's account on bare plural interpretation. The other purpose is to present a new comprehensive approach, based on notions such as "current situation satisfaction," "sloppy reading," and "context and world knowledge," which cause the process of domain narrowing of quantification

Generics and Conceptualizations

Generics have been studied vigorously over the past few decades, mostly by formal linguists and philosophers. As is well known, there are two representative formal approaches toward generics: majority-based and normalcy-based approaches. Both approaches have been met with criticism but continue to undergo revisions. In contrast, Leslie (2007a,2007b; 2008; 2012; 2017) proposes a cognition-based approach arguing against the majority- and normalcy-based approaches. She proposes that generics express our most primitive and fundamental generalizations and are non-quantificational. Thus, the main purpose of this paper is to propose genericity as a semantic, pragmatic, and even cognitive phenomenon, arguing that generics should be accounted for through cognitive conceptualizations. It will also be proposed that the generic operator is a quasi-universal quantifier, in contrast to both the formal and cognitive approaches. This position will be supported by experimental results

Toward a New Theory of Metaphorical Interpretation

Over the years, the principles of metaphorical interpretation have been proposed to be semantic, pragmatic, or/and cognitive. However, these proposed theories have never reached even a near consensus. In this context, recently, Leezenberg (2001) proposed an interesting theory based on the notions of "context" and "thematic dimension," which is basically semantic but also tries to combine cognitive aspects of language. Given this, one purpose of this paper is to review Leezenberg's theory. In the process of pointing out some problems of his theory, we will propose an alternative analysis on the principles of metaphorical interpretation which combines semantic and cognitive aspects of language

Sum Individuals and Proportion Problem

This paper proposes that the so-called proportion problem, which was observed in Kadmon (1987, 1990) as a problem to the analyses of Kamp (1981) and Heim (1982), can be overcome by adopting the notion of 'sum individuals.' It will be suggested that given a donkey sentence with an asymmetric reading, a set of sum individuals of the 'dependent' variable is computed and this is introduced to the antecedent level as a variable of sum individuals. In this way, we can make the dependent variable accessible from the consequent level and avoid the proportion problem. In addition, it will be shown that the process of computing the sum individuals is necessary in order to explain the existence of weak and strong readings of quantified sentences

Schottky Barrier Modulation of Metal/4H-SiC Junction with Thin Interface Spacer Driven by Surface Polarization Charge on 4H-SiC Substrate

The Au/Ni/Al2O3/4H-SiC junction with the Al2O3 film as a thin spacer layer was found to show the electrical characteristics of a typical rectifying Schottky contact, which is considered to be due to the leakiness of the spacer layer. The Schottky barrier of the junction was measured to be higher than an Au/Ni/4H-SiC junction with no spacer layer. It is believed that the negative surface bound charge originating from the spontaneous polarization of 4H-SiC causes the Schottky barrier increase. The use of a thin spacer layer can be an efficient experimental method to modulate Schottky barriers of metal/4H-SiC junctions.open

Gradable nouns as concepts without prototypes

Non-copy-edited preprint. To appear in L. McNally, E. Castroviejo-Miró, and G. Sassoon (eds). The Semantics of Gradability, Vagueness and Scale Structure. Language, Cognition and Mind series. Springer

Für | For Manfred from his Students

Dieses Buch enthält Beiträge von Personen, die ihre Magister- oder Doktorarbeit unter der Betreuung von Manfred Krifka geschrieben haben. Es ist als kleines Abschiedsgeschenk für Manfred Krifka zum Ende seiner Amtszeit als Direktor des Leibniz-Zentrums für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft gedacht. Die Herausgeberin und der Herausgeber haben Beiträge zu sprachwissenschaftlichen und nicht-sprachwissenschaftlichen Themen in einer Vielzahl von Genres gesammelt. Diese Vielfalt spiegelt die Interessen und Forschungsthemen von Manfred Krifka wider. Sie spiegelt auch die Vielfalt der Menschen wider, denen Manfred Krifka geholfen hat

Robust estimation of bacterial cell count from optical density

Optical density (OD) is widely used to estimate the density of cells in liquid culture, but cannot be compared between instruments without a standardized calibration protocol and is challenging to relate to actual cell count. We address this with an interlaboratory study comparing three simple, low-cost, and highly accessible OD calibration protocols across 244 laboratories, applied to eight strains of constitutive GFP-expressing E. coli. Based on our results, we recommend calibrating OD to estimated cell count using serial dilution of silica microspheres, which produces highly precise calibration (95.5% of residuals <1.2-fold), is easily assessed for quality control, also assesses instrument effective linear range, and can be combined with fluorescence calibration to obtain units of Molecules of Equivalent Fluorescein (MEFL) per cell, allowing direct comparison and data fusion with flow cytometry measurements: in our study, fluorescence per cell measurements showed only a 1.07-fold mean difference between plate reader and flow cytometry data

Optimal strategies for the development of microfinance in Korea and the impact of microfinance

This paper mainly focuses on finding optimal strategies for the development of microfinance in Korea and on predicting the impact of microfinance in the future. First, this paper reviews and assesses the impact of microfinance in Korea. I suggested that recent phenomena of income polarization and credit rationing in the financial market are evidence that microfinance is needed in Korea. Although the Korean economy has made great strides, the difference in the income between the poor and the rich has gotten much greater. The foreign currency crisis in 1997 deepened income polarization and the impact is continuing. Banks choose to ration credit instead of increasing interest rate (when there was an excess demand for loans) which would lead adverse selection and moral hazards. The poor are in an inferior position when it comes to getting funds when credit ration happens because they cannot offer collateral and they need money urgently. This paper analyzes the factors which impact up on the survival of microenterprises using two econometric methods (the logit regression model and the Cox proportional hazard model). Attributes of microenterprises, such as organizational form, sex of the owner(s), income level of the owner(s), and types of business are chosen as independent variables which may have impact on the survival. The results from the econometric models indicate that more support should be provided when the income level of the owner(s) became less if we want to make more microenterprises survive. The direction of impact or the relative magnitudes of impact is not exactly the same between two econometric methods. Therefore, proper interpretation and fine tuning are needed in applying the results into the real microcredit world. Next, this paper outlines the impact of microfinance on the income level of the poor and the repayment ratio of microcredit. This task is carried out by a simulation which is an agent based model. The simulation of the agent based model shows that two different policy directions are needed to guarantee the success of microfinance. First, it is necessary to magnify positive impacts. There are at least two ways this can be done. You can increase the amount of microcredit to make it easier to start businesses and you can support an increase in the yield rate of return. Minimizing negative impacts is also important. This can be done by decreasing the interest rate charged by local money lenders and closely monitoring their behavior to see if they obey the usury law. Finally, I proposed several optimal strategies for the development of microfinance in the future. (1) Introducing and enforcing group lending, because group lending can solve two major problems in microfinance, adverse selection by assortative matching and moral hazard by monitoring group members??? transactions. (2) Letting MFIs (Microfinance Institutions) carry out both microsaving and microinsurance. (3) Establishing independent committees to mediate disputes regarding microcredit issues, which can solve commitment problem. (4) Expanding microfinance services by letting MFIs handle housing microfinance and loans for education and health care. (5) Encouraging social enterprise to help the poor overcome their state of poverty. In conclusion, appropriate social objectives and forward looking entrepreneurship when properly supported by MFIs can bring remarkable progress in social integration and help the poor overcome their state of poverty