Early medieval island-type lake dwellings in north-western Poland: Western Slavonic crannogs?

In many regions of Europe there are so-called lake-dwellings, which were described in 1890 by Robert Munro, and have a close spatial and functional relation withinland water systems and seas. Settlements of this type are also known from the area of north-western Poland, where the landscape is dominated by lakes. Characteristicamong them are early medieval settlements entirely occupying small islands located within lake basins (Parsęcko, Żółte and Myślibórz in Pomerania – Pomorze; Nowy Dworek, Chycina and Lubniewice in Lubusz Land – ziemia lubuska). In their external appearance, they resemble British crannogs, especially in their size, the anthropogenic structure of the islands, wooden quays, piers and bridge crossings connecting the islands with the nearby mainland. An important feature of the islands where such structures are sited is their characteristic location – directly on the long-distance routes, in the settlement border zone, in the vicinity of the main watersheds of Lubusz Land andPomerania. They were also part of local settlement clusters, which often included contemporary defensive settlements. They were central places, especially important from the point of view of the identity of local territorial communities. Their functions should be considered not only in the social and political dimension, but probably also in the mythical and sacral one.In many regions of Europe there are so-called lake-dwellings, which were described in 1890 by Robert Munro, and have a close spatial and functional relation withinland water systems and seas. Settlements of this type are also known from the area of north-western Poland, where the landscape is dominated by lakes. Characteristicamong them are early medieval settlements entirely occupying small islands located within lake basins (Parsęcko, Żółte and Myślibórz in Pomerania – Pomorze; Nowy Dworek, Chycina and Lubniewice in Lubusz Land – ziemia lubuska). In their external appearance, they resemble British crannogs, especially in their size, the anthropogenic structure of the islands, wooden quays, piers and bridge crossings connecting the islands with the nearby mainland. An important feature of the islands where such structures are sited is their characteristic location – directly on the long-distance routes, in the settlement border zone, in the vicinity of the main watersheds of Lubusz Land andPomerania. They were also part of local settlement clusters, which often included contemporary defensive settlements. They were central places, especially important from the point of view of the identity of local territorial communities. Their functions should be considered not only in the social and political dimension, but probably also in the mythical and sacral one

Długi wiek XIII w Chełmnie

Complex processes that took place in the north-western part of the Slavs’ territory in the 13th century, essentially ones that changed the existing traditional model of community, influenced many spheres of life, including the most important socio-economic and political transformations. In the case of Chełmno Land which was a borderland located between Mazovia, Kujawy, Eastern Pomerania and Old Prussian Pomezania, in its structure referring to German marches, these processes can be characterized by a few keywords such as ‘feudalization’, ‘decentralization/centralization’, ‘colonization’ or ‘urbanization’. The history of Chełmno Land in the second half of the 12th–first half of the 13th century, which is described relatively well in written sources, can be example of Chełmno, the centre of this area. The name is eponymous with regard to the whole region, which clearly emphasizes its exceptional importance. In the history of this centre’s ‘moving’ in geographical terms according to the will of the then policy-makers, fundamental socio-economic and political transformations were enacted, creating the symbolic ‘long’ duration of the 13th century. Located at the crossroads of long-distance trade routes, on the western outskirts of the Vistula, Drwęca and Osa River basins, it was for a long period a ‘gateway’ to Chełmno Land. The political and socio-economic centre was to be on the border periphery, initially of the Polish state within the castellan organization, and then of the Teutonic Order, at least in the first stage of its being. The primary role of Chełmno in the region between the Vistula, Drwęca and Osa Rivers is also confirmed by the results of archaeological research conducted intensively in Chełmno Land for many decades (Kola 1975; Chudziak 2003, 2010 – therein earlier literature). They have generally been carried out in two separate areas, traditionally distinguished in Polish archaeology: one concerning early medieval settlement (Kałdus) and the second, focusing on the study of late medieval culture that was generally associated with the history of the Teutonic Order in this area (Starogród and Chełmno). Despite the significant organizational differences between the strongly urbanized castellan centre in Kałdus/Chełmno in the second half of the 12th and the first quarter of the 13th century and the urban centre of the Teutonic Order, reflecting two urbanization phases of this area, it should be noted that the elements of continuation in this working urban settlement transferred along the edge of the height over a distance of only a few kilometres. It is worth noting the capital rank of this area that acted, regardless of the changing legal and political system – as a centre of political, religious, socio-economic and cultural functions. In the case of both stages of its development it was also the most important place in the region for exchange and production, with long-distance connections, a continuation of which in the 14th century, seems to have been the participation of Chełmno in the Hanseatic League. followed in particular on theW artykule przedstawione zostały dzieje Chełmna, centralnego ośrodka ziemi chełmińskiej, w okresie od 2. połowy XII do 1. połowy XIII wieku. W jego historii skupiają się zasadnicze przeobrażenia społeczno-gospodarcze i polityczne, składające się na symboliczne „długie” trwanie XIII wieku. Warto podkreślić stołeczną rangę tego ośrodka pełniącego – niezależnie od zmieniających się uwarunkowań prawno-ustrojowych – centralne funkcje polityczne, religijne, społeczno-gospodarcze i kulturotwórcze

Długi wiek XIII w Chełmnie

Complex processes that took place in the north-western part of the Slavs’ territory in the 13th century, essentially ones that changed the existing traditional model of community, influenced many spheres of life, including the most important socio-economic and political transformations. In the case of Chełmno Land which was a borderland located between Mazovia, Kujawy, Eastern Pomerania and Old Prussian Pomezania, in its structure referring to German marches, these processes can be characterized by a few keywords such as ‘feudalization’, ‘decentralization/centralization’, ‘colonization’ or ‘urbanization’. The history of Chełmno Land in the second half of the 12th–first half of the 13th century, which is described relatively well in written sources, can be example of Chełmno, the centre of this area. The name is eponymous with regard to the whole region, which clearly emphasizes its exceptional importance. In the history of this centre’s ‘moving’ in geographical terms according to the will of the then policy-makers, fundamental socio-economic and political transformations were enacted, creating the symbolic ‘long’ duration of the 13th century. Located at the crossroads of long-distance trade routes, on the western outskirts of the Vistula, Drwęca and Osa River basins, it was for a long period a ‘gateway’ to Chełmno Land. The political and socio-economic centre was to be on the border periphery, initially of the Polish state within the castellan organization, and then of the Teutonic Order, at least in the first stage of its being. The primary role of Chełmno in the region between the Vistula, Drwęca and Osa Rivers is also confirmed by the results of archaeological research conducted intensively in Chełmno Land for many decades (Kola 1975; Chudziak 2003, 2010 – therein earlier literature). They have generally been carried out in two separate areas, traditionally distinguished in Polish archaeology: one concerning early medieval settlement (Kałdus) and the second, focusing on the study of late medieval culture that was generally associated with the history of the Teutonic Order in this area (Starogród and Chełmno). Despite the significant organizational differences between the strongly urbanized castellan centre in Kałdus/Chełmno in the second half of the 12th and the first quarter of the 13th century and the urban centre of the Teutonic Order, reflecting two urbanization phases of this area, it should be noted that the elements of continuation in this working urban settlement transferred along the edge of the height over a distance of only a few kilometres. It is worth noting the capital rank of this area that acted, regardless of the changing legal and political system – as a centre of political, religious, socio-economic and cultural functions. In the case of both stages of its development it was also the most important place in the region for exchange and production, with long-distance connections, a continuation of which in the 14th century, seems to have been the participation of Chełmno in the Hanseatic League. followed in particular on theW artykule przedstawione zostały dzieje Chełmna, centralnego ośrodka ziemi chełmińskiej, w okresie od 2. połowy XII do 1. połowy XIII wieku. W jego historii skupiają się zasadnicze przeobrażenia społeczno-gospodarcze i polityczne, składające się na symboliczne „długie” trwanie XIII wieku. Warto podkreślić stołeczną rangę tego ośrodka pełniącego – niezależnie od zmieniających się uwarunkowań prawno-ustrojowych – centralne funkcje polityczne, religijne, społeczno-gospodarcze i kulturotwórcze

A multidisciplinary study of anti-vampire burials from early medieval Culmen, Poland: were the diseased and disabled regarded as vampires?

The definitions and interpretations of anti-vampire burials have provoked impassioned discussion in archaeology over the last century. That the diseased and disabled were sometimes perceived as vampires is very intriguing and worth investigating because historical and ethnographic materials and archaeological studies indicate a connection between disease (e.g. tuberculosis and anaemia) and vampirism. Until the development of germ theory in the 19th century, some people explained the phenomenon of disease and death as its consequence by connecting it with beliefs in vampires. We investigate if the diseased and disabled were buried in anti-vampire graves based on materials from early medieval Culmen in Poland. We selected 574 skeletons from 566 graves for our analysis. The research allowed the identification of 13 antivampire graves, which include 14 skeletons. Of 574 skeletons, 299 indicate pathological lesions associated with diseases and 8 skeletons indicate lesions associated with disabilities. Among the individuals buried in anti-vampire graves (N=14), 11 had pathological lesions associated with diseases and one – lesions associated with disability. We analyse each disease and condition separately to see if it was a reason for burying individuals in anti-vampire graves. Our analyses have shown that the diseases and conditions that were identified on skeletons in anti-vampire graves were common in the past populations, including Culmen, and apparently not connected with the appearance of a vampire. Therefore, we conclude that diseases and disabilities were not the reason for perceiving someone as a vampire in Culmen

Osadnictwo grodowe na Kujawach i ziemi chełmińskiej w okresie wczesnego średniowiecza w świetle tradycji miejsca centralnego

Previous studies on central places of the Western Slavs clearly show that these centres, regardless of physiographic and socio-cultural conditions, various factors of their formation, created specific spatial arrangements of homogeneous characteristics or hierarchical to varying degree. They were dynamic systems, changing in time. From this perspective interesting seems to be the problem of continuation or discontinuation of specific places, the problem of their duration and continuity on the one hand, and their abandonment and translocation on the other. Continuity of the central place – as is known – we observe in the case of various archaeological sites, mainly burial grounds, as well as places referred to in the traditional archaeological and heritage protection terminology as strongholds. Due to their formal, chronological, and consequently functional diversity, the archaeologists realized long time ago that they were dealing with a very complex group of archaeological sites, including also some which do not match the classic definition of stronghold. This is reflected in frequent use of term ‘alleged stronhold’ and in the introduction of a vague term ‘quasi-stronghold’, concerning not the remains of cultural space, but an entity from a described bygone reality. It seems obvious that the principal criterion of stronghold determination should be presence of elements of an artificial space delimitation, while the functional aspect is of secondary importance, related to changing purpose of central places marked in natural and cultural landscape. There can be distinguished four stages in stronholds development, assigned, in turn, to four degrees of development of Western Slavs socio-political organization, characteristic of homo symbolicus, homo competitor, homo politicus and homo economicus (Urbańczyk 2007). They correspond to a) quasi -strongholds from the 7th–8th century; b) chieftains’ strongholds from the 9th–10th century; c) state strongholds from the 10th–11th century; d) castellan strongholds from the 12th–13th century. Inevitably, this is a generalized approach, not taking into account all functional variants, which can be attributed to early medieval strongholds known from the Polish territory. All aforementioned stages of devel58 opment were recorded in Kuyavia and Chełmno Land. Many of them showed a multiphase nature and changing functions, which would confirm in many cases the tradition of use of these places associated with their particular valorization in natural and cultural landscape.Głównym zagadnieniem podjętym w niniejszym przyczynku jest problem występowania w krajobrazie przyrodniczo-kulturowym Kujaw i strefy chełmińsko-dobrzyńskiej we wczesnym średniowieczu określonych miejsc, które w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej nabrały szczególnego znaczenia, stając się ogniwem struktur tzw. osadnictwa grodowego. Jako wyodrębnione w przestrzeni punkty terenowe, w zależności od zmieniających się uwarunkowań społeczno-politycznych i gospodarczych, pełniły one różne funkcje nie tylko związane z obronnością. W artykule poruszono kwestię ich kontynuacji/dyskontynuacji, a ponadto problem „długiego” trwania wskazującego na tradycję miejsca centralnego. Opisywane zjawisko przedstawiono w ramach czterech przedziałów czasowych, obejmujących zarówno czasy plemienne (VII–X wiek), jak i państwowe (X–XIII wiek)

Early medieval fortified settlements of the Pomeranian-Kuyavia limesis – archaeology and conservation issues

The text discusses three different cases of rescue research carried out in recent years by the Institute of Archaeology the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń on fortified settlements in Bydgoszcz-Stare Miasto, Pawłówek and Bydgoszcz-Fordon (historic Wyszogród), in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie voivodeship. These settlements played an important role in the early Middle Ages as centres of exchange and defence of the Greater Poland-Kuyavia borderland. Together with their immediate settlement base, they were subject to destruction processes to varying degrees. These destructions were the result of natural and human activities. The progressive degradation required wide-ranging archaeological investigations to be carried out on these sites and appropriate legal, administrative and conservation measures to be taken in order to secure the remaining relics

Osadnictwo grodowe na Kujawach i ziemi chełmińskiej w okresie wczesnego średniowiecza w świetle tradycji miejsca centralnego

Previous studies on central places of the Western Slavs clearly show that these centres, regardless of physiographic and socio-cultural conditions, various factors of their formation, created specific spatial arrangements of homogeneous characteristics or hierarchical to varying degree. They were dynamic systems, changing in time. From this perspective interesting seems to be the problem of continuation or discontinuation of specific places, the problem of their duration and continuity on the one hand, and their abandonment and translocation on the other. Continuity of the central place – as is known – we observe in the case of various archaeological sites, mainly burial grounds, as well as places referred to in the traditional archaeological and heritage protection terminology as strongholds. Due to their formal, chronological, and consequently functional diversity, the archaeologists realized long time ago that they were dealing with a very complex group of archaeological sites, including also some which do not match the classic definition of stronghold. This is reflected in frequent use of term ‘alleged stronhold’ and in the introduction of a vague term ‘quasi-stronghold’, concerning not the remains of cultural space, but an entity from a described bygone reality. It seems obvious that the principal criterion of stronghold determination should be presence of elements of an artificial space delimitation, while the functional aspect is of secondary importance, related to changing purpose of central places marked in natural and cultural landscape. There can be distinguished four stages in stronholds development, assigned, in turn, to four degrees of development of Western Slavs socio-political organization, characteristic of homo symbolicus, homo competitor, homo politicus and homo economicus (Urbańczyk 2007). They correspond to a) quasi-strongholds from the 7th–8th century; b) chieftains’ strongholds from the 9th–10th century; c) state strongholds from the 10th–11th century; d) castellan strongholds from the 12th–13th century. Inevitably, this is a generalized approach, not taking into account all functional variants, which can be attributed to early medieval strongholds known from the Polish territory. All aforementioned stages of devel58 opment were recorded in Kuyavia and Chełmno Land. Many of them showed a multiphase nature and changing functions, which would confirm in many cases the tradition of use of these places associated with their particular valorization in natural and cultural landscape.Głównym zagadnieniem podjętym w niniejszym przyczynku jest problem występowania w krajobrazie przyrodniczo-kulturowym Kujaw i strefy chełmińsko-dobrzyńskiej we wczesnym średniowieczu określonych miejsc, które w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej nabrały szczególnego znaczenia, stając się ogniwem struktur tzw. osadnictwa grodowego. Jako wyodrębnione w przestrzeni punkty terenowe, w zależności od zmieniających się uwarunkowań społeczno-politycznych i gospodarczych, pełniły one różne funkcje nie tylko związane z obronnością. W artykule poruszono kwestię ich kontynuacji/dyskontynuacji, a ponadto problem „długiego” trwania wskazującego na tradycję miejsca centralnego. Opisywane zjawisko przedstawiono w ramach czterech przedziałów czasowych, obejmujących zarówno czasy plemienne (VII–X wiek), jak i państwowe (X–XIII wiek)

Chełmno i Toruń. Początki miast na ziemi chełmińskiej

The starting point for a discussion on the origins of towns in Chełmno Land is the content of the incorporation document issued in 1233 for Chełmno and Toruń – called the Chełmno privilege – which become the source of the law system for the towns. The origins of both centres, however, were different and resulted from different settlement, cultural and economic conditions. This paper discusses relations between newly incorporated towns (Chełmno and Toruń) and pre-corporation forms of settlement of early medieval traditions (Kałdus – Starogród and Stary Toruń – Toruń). An attempt was undertaken to answer the question as to whether the incorporation decisions made by the Teutonic Knights a few years after arriving at the Kuyavian-Chełmno border, took into account – both in the case of Chełmno and Toruń – similar socio-economic, demographic and settlement conditions; or whether we are dealing here with different models for the creation of the aforementioned urban centres. Was the basis of incorporation in both cases a prior settlement structure, or were there substantial differences between them in this regard? Therefore, the results of previous archaeological excavations conducted in Chełmno and Toruń were compared, including the available written sources. Taking into account the facts concerning the origins of these centres, especially their pre-incorporation stage, it was found that more favourable development conditions occurred near today’s Kałdus (pre-incorporation Chełmno). A castellany existed in Chełmno, the capital of the region, with the name recorded in written sources (Culmen). There was a well-developed settlement background too, as confirmed by discoveries of large craft and trade settlements and extensive cemeteries related to them. In contrast to Chełmno, the name of Toruń was not recorded in written sources older than the time of the town’s incorporation. In this area, there are no developed settlement structures, except for several points. This indicates that the town incorporated by the Teutonic Knights was founded on a so-called greenfield sites, in the vicinity of an early medieval settlement located on the Vistula River crossing (Stary Toruń), then translocated to the present site and situated at the back of a small border fortress (Postolsko – at pre-Teutonic Knights stronghold). The common elements of the first two incorporations are political and communication conditions; both Chełmno and Toruń were located on Chełmno Land’s border, at major crossings, and along overland and water long-range trade routes at the entrance to Chełmno Land from the Kuyavia and Pomerania (theory of gateway centres). Both Teutonic Knights’ towns belonged to a network of centres later included to the Hanseatic League. Despite a common document, their hierarchy was strictly defined. Even in a document from 1251, the master one, the capital role of Chełmno was highlighted, which probably corresponded to the historical tradition and the special position of this centre, from which Chełmno Land took its name.Podsumowanie wiedzy i badań nad początkami Chełmna i Torunia z uwzględnieniem opracowań historycznych oraz najnowszych wyników badań archeologicznych. Omówienie warunków powstania tych ośrodków, czynników kształtowania sieci osadniczej w najbliższym otoczeniu, podkreślenie rangi tradycji miejsca. Wskazanie różnic i podobieństw w funkcjonowaniu Chełmna i Torunia – ważnych elementów struktur osadniczych oraz punktów węzłowych połączeń komunikacyjnych we wczesnym średniowieczu

Chełmno i Toruń. Początki miast na ziemi chełmińskiej

The starting point for a discussion on the origins of towns in Chełmno Land is the content of the incorporation document issued in 1233 for Chełmno and Toruń – called the Chełmno privilege – which become the source of the law system for the towns. The origins of both centres, however, were different and resulted from different settlement, cultural and economic conditions. This paper discusses relations between newly incorporated towns (Chełmno and Toruń) and pre-corporation forms of settlement of early medieval traditions (Kałdus – Starogród and Stary Toruń – Toruń). An attempt was undertaken to answer the question as to whether the incorporation decisions made by the Teutonic Knights a few years after arriving at the Kuyavian-Chełmno border, took into account – both in the case of Chełmno and Toruń – similar socio-economic, demographic and settlement conditions; or whether we are dealing here with different models for the creation of the aforementioned urban centres. Was the basis of incorporation in both cases a prior settlement structure, or were there substantial differences between them in this regard? Therefore, the results of previous archaeological excavations conducted in Chełmno and Toruń were compared, including the available written sources. Taking into account the facts concerning the origins of these centres, especially their pre-incorporation stage, it was found that more favourable development conditions occurred near today’s Kałdus (pre-incorporation Chełmno). A castellany existed in Chełmno, the capital of the region, with the name recorded in written sources (Culmen). There was a well-developed settlement background too, as confirmed by discoveries of large craft and trade settlements and extensive cemeteries related to them. In contrast to Chełmno, the name of Toruń was not recorded in written sources older than the time of the town’s incorporation. In this area, there are no developed settlement structures, except for several points. This indicates that the town incorporated by the Teutonic Knights was founded on a so-called greenfield sites, in the vicinity of an early medieval settlement located on the Vistula River crossing (Stary Toruń), then translocated to the present site and situated at the back of a small border fortress (Postolsko – at pre-Teutonic Knights stronghold). The common elements of the first two incorporations are political and communication conditions; both Chełmno and Toruń were located on Chełmno Land’s border, at major crossings, and along overland and water long-range trade routes at the entrance to Chełmno Land from the Kuyavia and Pomerania (theory of gateway centres). Both Teutonic Knights’ towns belonged to a network of centres later included to the Hanseatic League. Despite a common document, their hierarchy was strictly defined. Even in a document from 1251, the master one, the capital role of Chełmno was highlighted, which probably corresponded to the historical tradition and the special position of this centre, from which Chełmno Land took its name.Podsumowanie wiedzy i badań nad początkami Chełmna i Torunia z uwzględnieniem opracowań historycznych oraz najnowszych wyników badań archeologicznych. Omówienie warunków powstania tych ośrodków, czynników kształtowania sieci osadniczej w najbliższym otoczeniu, podkreślenie rangi tradycji miejsca. Wskazanie różnic i podobieństw w funkcjonowaniu Chełmna i Torunia – ważnych elementów struktur osadniczych oraz punktów węzłowych połączeń komunikacyjnych we wczesnym średniowieczu