Quality by Design Approach in Liposomal Formulations: Robust Product Development

Nanomedicine is an emerging field with continuous growth and differentiation. Liposomal formulations are a major platform in nanomedicine, with more than fifteen FDA-approved liposomal products in the market. However, as is the case for other types of nanoparticle-based delivery systems, liposomal formulations and manufacturing is intrinsically complex and associated with a set of dependent and independent variables, rendering experiential optimization a tedious process in general. Quality by design (QbD) is a powerful approach that can be applied in such complex systems to facilitate product development and ensure reproducible manufacturing processes, which are an essential pre-requisite for efficient and safe therapeutics. Input variables (related to materials, processes and experiment design) and the quality attributes for the final liposomal product should follow a systematic and planned experimental design to identify critical variables and optimal formulations/processes, where these elements are subjected to risk assessment. This review discusses the current practices that employ QbD in developing liposomal-based nano-pharmaceuticals

Synthesis, Characterization, and Assessment of Anti-Cancer Potential of ZnO Nanoparticles in an In Vitro Model of Breast Cancer

Advanced innovations for combating variants of aggressive breast cancer and overcoming drug resistance are desired. In cancer treatment, ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) have the capacity to specifically and compellingly activate apoptosis of cancer cells. There is also a pressing need to develop innovative anti-cancer therapeutics, and recent research suggests that ZnO nanoparticles hold great potential. Here, the in vitro chemical effectiveness of ZnO NPs has been tested. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized using Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad by green methods approach. The generated ZnO was observed to have a hexagonal wurtzite crystal arrangement. The generated nanomaterials were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-visible spectroscopy. The crystallinity of ZnO was reported to be in the range 50–60 nm. The NPs morphology showed a strong absorbance at 374 nm with an estimated gap band of 3.20 eV to 3.32 eV. Microscopy analysis proved the morphology and distribution of the generated nanoparticles to be around 50 nm, with the elemental studies showing the elemental composition of ZnO and further confirming the purity of ZnO NPs. The cytotoxic effect of ZnO NPs was evaluated against wild-type and doxorubicin-resistant MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. The results showed the ability of ZnO NPs to inhibit the prefoliation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 prefoliation through the induction of apoptosis without significant differences in both wild-type and resistance to doxorubicin

Alleviation of diabetic nephropathy by zinc oxide nanoparticles in streptozotocin‐induced type 1 diabetes in rats

Abstract This study examines the effect of nanoparticles with zinc oxides (ZnONPs) on diabetic nephropathy, which is the primary cause of mortality for diabetic patients with end‐stage renal disease. Diabetes in adult male rats was induced via intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. ZnONPs were intraperitoneally administered to diabetic rats daily for 7 weeks. Diabetes was associated with increases in blood glucose level, 24‐h urinary albumin excretion rate, glomerular basement membrane thickness, renal oxidative stress markers, and renal mRNA or protein expression of transforming growth factor‐β1, fibronectin, collagen‐IV, tumour necrosis factor‐α and vascular endothelial growth factor‐A. Moreover, the expression of nephrin and podocin, and the mRNA expression of matrix metalloproteinase‐9 were decreased in the diabetic group. These changes were not detected in the control group and were significantly prevented by ZnONP treatment. These results provide evidence that ZnONPs ameliorate the renal damage induced in a diabetic rat model of nephropathy through improving renal functionality; inhibiting renal fibrosis, oxidative stress, inflammation and abnormal angiogenesis; and delaying the development of podocyte injury. The present findings may help design the clinical application of ZnONPs for protection against the development of diabetic nephropathy

Synthesis, Characterization, and Assessment of Anti-Cancer Potential of ZnO Nanoparticles in an In Vitro Model of Breast Cancer.

Advanced innovations for combating variants of aggressive breast cancer and overcoming drug resistance are desired. In cancer treatment, ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) have the capacity to specifically and compellingly activate apoptosis of cancer cells. There is also a pressing need to develop innovative anti-cancer therapeutics, and recent research suggests that ZnO nanoparticles hold great potential. Here, the chemical effectiveness of ZnO NPs has been tested. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized using (L.) Schrad by green methods approach. The generated ZnO was observed to have a hexagonal wurtzite crystal arrangement. The generated nanomaterials were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-visible spectroscopy. The crystallinity of ZnO was reported to be in the range 50-60 nm. The NPs morphology showed a strong absorbance at 374 nm with an estimated gap band of 3.20 eV to 3.32 eV. Microscopy analysis proved the morphology and distribution of the generated nanoparticles to be around 50 nm, with the elemental studies showing the elemental composition of ZnO and further confirming the purity of ZnO NPs. The cytotoxic effect of ZnO NPs was evaluated against wild-type and doxorubicin-resistant MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. The results showed the ability of ZnO NPs to inhibit the prefoliation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 prefoliation through the induction of apoptosis without significant differences in both wild-type and resistance to doxorubicin

COVID-19 infection and nanomedicine applications for development of vaccines and therapeutics: An overview and future perspectives based on polymersomes

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), which emerged in December 2019 and caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, took the world by surprise with an unprecedented public health emergency. Since this pandemic began, extraordinary efforts have been made by scientists to understand the pathogenesis of COVID-19, and to fight the infection by providing various preventive, diagnostic and treatment opportunities based on either novel hypotheses or past experiences. Despite all the achievements, COVID-19 continues to be an accelerating health threat with no specifically approved vaccine or therapy. This review highlights the recent advances in COVID-19 infection, with a particular emphasis on nanomedicine applications that can help in the development of effective vaccines or therapeutics against COVID-19. A novel future perspective has been proposed in this review based on utilizing polymersome nano-objects for effectively suppressing the cytokine storm, which may reduce the severity of COVID-19 infection

Functionalizing liposomes with aptamers for active targeting of tumor cells

Dans ce travail, nous avons pu sélectionner par la méthode SELEX un aptamère à ARN modifié, appelé Apt1, qui se lie avec une haute affinité au récepteur CD44. L'aptamère sélectionné a été modifié avec par des 2'-F-pyrimidines afin d’augmenter sa stabilité vis-à-vis des nucléases pour une application thérapeutique. Cet aptamère a été ensuite greffé sur des liposomes contenant des séquences de siRNA dirigées contre un gène rapporteur, dans le but d’un ciblage actif des cellules tumorales exprimant le récepteur CD44. Cette fonctionnalisation a été réalisée par la conjugaison d’un dérivé 3'-thiol de Apt1 et un dérivé maléimide de phospholipides, directement à la surface des liposomes, ou bien séparément puis par post-insertion sur les liposomes. Les liposomes ainsi formulés présentent une forte affinité pour les cellules exprimant le CD44 sans déclencher de réponse inflammatoire au sein de ces cellules. En outre, nous montrons que l'inhibition du gène rapporteur est augmentée et prolongée lorsque l’aptamère est couplé aux liposomes chargés aux siRNA, in vitro ainsi qu’in vivo sur un modèle murin orthotopique de cancer du sein. De tels vecteurs de siRNA constituent donc un outil prometteur pour le ciblage actif de tumeurs exprimant le récepteur CD44. L'étape suivante consistera charger ces vecteurs par des séquences de siRNA permettant de réprimer des oncogènes.In this work we succeeded to select a modified RNA aptamer, named Apt1, to bind the human CD44 receptor protein with high affinity using the Systemaic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX) method. The selected aptamer was modified with 2'-F-pyrimidines to increase its stability against nucleases for therapeutic applications. Furthermore, we designed and characterized aptamer-functionalized liposomes loaded with siRNA molecules against a reporter gene as a model drug delivery system for the active targeting CD44-expressing tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. Such functionalization was performed by conjugation of 3'-thiol-modified Apt1 to maleimide-modified phospholipids, either on the surface of liposomes, or separately, followed by post-insertion onto liposomes. The targeted liposomes displayed high affinity for CD44-positive cells without triggering any inflammatory response within these cells. Moreover, we show that a higher and prolonged inhibition of the targeted gene can be achieved when siRNA-loaded liposomes are functionalized by the aptamer, both in vitro and in vivo on a murine orthotopic breast cancer model. Such a delivery system may thus be a useful tool for the active targeting of CD44-expressing tumors and silencing oncogenes in vivo

Fonctionnalisation de liposomes par des aptamères pour le ciblage actif des cellules cancéreuses

In this work we succeeded to select a modified RNA aptamer, named Apt1, to bind the human CD44 receptor protein with high affinity using the Systemaic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX) method. The selected aptamer was modified with 2'-F-pyrimidines to increase its stability against nucleases for therapeutic applications. Furthermore, we designed and characterized aptamer-functionalized liposomes loaded with siRNA molecules against a reporter gene as a model drug delivery system for the active targeting CD44-expressing tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. Such functionalization was performed by conjugation of 3'-thiol-modified Apt1 to maleimide-modified phospholipids, either on the surface of liposomes, or separately, followed by post-insertion onto liposomes. The targeted liposomes displayed high affinity for CD44-positive cells without triggering any inflammatory response within these cells. Moreover, we show that a higher and prolonged inhibition of the targeted gene can be achieved when siRNA-loaded liposomes are functionalized by the aptamer, both in vitro and in vivo on a murine orthotopic breast cancer model. Such a delivery system may thus be a useful tool for the active targeting of CD44-expressing tumors and silencing oncogenes in vivo.Dans ce travail, nous avons pu sélectionner par la méthode SELEX un aptamère à ARN modifié, appelé Apt1, qui se lie avec une haute affinité au récepteur CD44. L'aptamère sélectionné a été modifié avec par des 2'-F-pyrimidines afin d’augmenter sa stabilité vis-à-vis des nucléases pour une application thérapeutique. Cet aptamère a été ensuite greffé sur des liposomes contenant des séquences de siRNA dirigées contre un gène rapporteur, dans le but d’un ciblage actif des cellules tumorales exprimant le récepteur CD44. Cette fonctionnalisation a été réalisée par la conjugaison d’un dérivé 3'-thiol de Apt1 et un dérivé maléimide de phospholipides, directement à la surface des liposomes, ou bien séparément puis par post-insertion sur les liposomes. Les liposomes ainsi formulés présentent une forte affinité pour les cellules exprimant le CD44 sans déclencher de réponse inflammatoire au sein de ces cellules. En outre, nous montrons que l'inhibition du gène rapporteur est augmentée et prolongée lorsque l’aptamère est couplé aux liposomes chargés aux siRNA, in vitro ainsi qu’in vivo sur un modèle murin orthotopique de cancer du sein. De tels vecteurs de siRNA constituent donc un outil prometteur pour le ciblage actif de tumeurs exprimant le récepteur CD44. L'étape suivante consistera charger ces vecteurs par des séquences de siRNA permettant de réprimer des oncogènes

Downregulation of STAT3, β-Catenin, and Notch-1 by Single and Combinations of siRNA Treatment Enhance Chemosensitivity of Wild Type and Doxorubicin Resistant MCF7 Breast Cancer Cells to Doxorubicin

Combinatorial therapeutic strategies using siRNA and small molecules to eradicate tumors are emerging. Targeting multiple signaling pathways decreases the chances of cancer cells switching and adapting new signaling processes that may occur when using a single therapeutic modality. Aberrant functioning of Notch-1, Wnt/β-catenin, and STAT3 proteins and their crosstalk signaling pathways have been found to be involved in tumor survival, drug resistance, and relapse. In the current study, we describe a therapeutic potential of single and combinations of siRNA designed for silencing Notch-1, Wnt/β-catenin, and STAT3 in MCF7_DoxS (wild type) and MCF7_DoxR (doxorubicin resistant) breast cancer cells. The MCF7_DoxR cells were developed through treatment with a gradual increase in doxorubicin concentration, the expression of targeted genes was investigated, and the expression profiling of CD44/CD24 of the MCF7_DoxS and MCF7_DoxR cells were detected by flow cytometry. Both MCF7_DoxS and MCF7_DoxR breast cancer cells were treated with single and combinations of siRNA to investigate synergism and were analyzed for their effect on cell proliferation with and without doxorubicin treatment. The finding of this study showed the overexpression of targeted genes and the enrichment of the CD44−/CD24+ phenotype in MCF7_DoxR cells when compared to MCF7_DoxS cells. In both cell lines, the gene silencing efficacy showed a synergistic effect when combining STAT3/Notch-1 and STAT3/Notch-1/β-catenin siRNA. Interestingly, the chemosensitivity of MCF7_DoxS and MCF7_DoxR cells to doxorubicin was increased when combined with siRNA treatment. Our study shows the possibility of using single and combinations of siRNA to enhance the chemosensitivity of cancer cells to conventional antitumor chemotherapy

Preparation, Characterization, and Anticancer Effects of Capsaicin-Loaded Nanoliposomes

Background: Medicinal plants have proven their value as a source of molecules with therapeutic potential, and recent studies have shown that capsaicin has profound anticancer effects in several types of human cancers. However, its clinical use is handicapped due to its poor pharmacokinetics. This study aims to enhance capsaicin’s pharmacokinetic properties by loading the molecule into nanoliposomes model and testing its anticancer activity. Methods: Nanoliposomes were prepared using the thin-film method, and characteristics were examined followed by qualitative and quantitative analyses of encapsulation efficiency and drug loading using HPLC at different lipid/capsaicin ratios. Cell viability assay (MTT) was used to determine IC50. Results: Capsaicin-loaded nanoliposomes showed optimum characteristics of morphology, particle size, zeta potential, and stability. In vitro anticancer activity of capsaicin and capsaicin-loaded nanoliposomes were compared against MCF7, MDA-MB-231, K562, PANC1, and A375 cell lines. Capsaicin-loaded nanoliposomes showed significant improvement in anticancer activity against cancers cell lines studied (p < 0.001), with increased selectivity against cancer cells compared to capsaicin. Conclusion: The encapsulated capsaicin nanoliposomes produced an improvement in pharmacokinetics properties, enhancing the anticancer activity and selectivity compared with capsaicin. This model seems to offer a potential for developing capsaicin formulations for the prevention and treatment of cancer

Functionalizing Liposomes with anti-CD44 Aptamer for Selective Targeting of Cancer Cells

CD44 receptor protein is found to be overexpressed by many tumors and is identified as one of the most common cancer stem cell surface markers including tumors affecting colon, breast, pancreas, and head and neck, making this an attractive receptor for therapeutic targeting. In this study, 2′-F-pyrimidine-containing RNA aptamer (Apt1), previously selected against CD44, was successfully conjugated to the surface of PEGylated liposomes using the thiol–maleimide click reaction. The conjugation of Apt1 to the surface of liposomes was confirmed by the change in size and zeta potential and by migration on agarose gel electrophoresis. The binding affinity of Apt1 was improved after conjugation compared to free-Apt1. The cellular uptake for Apt1-Lip was tested by flow cytometry and confocal imaging using the two CD44⁺ cell lines, human lung cancer cells (A549) and human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231), and the CD44^– cell line, mouse embryonic fibroblast cells (NIH/3T3). The results showed higher sensitivity and selectivity for Apt1-Lip compared to the blank liposomes (Mal-Lip). In conclusion, we demonstrate a successful conjugation of anti-CD44 aptamer to the surface of liposome and binding preference of Apt1-Lip to CD44-expressing cancer cells and conclude to a promising potency of Apt1-Lip as a specific drug delivery system