Water Resources of the Dakota Aquifer in Kansas

The Dakota aquifer system underlies most of the western two-thirds of Kansas and includes sandstone units in the Cretaceous Dakota, Kiowa, and Cheyenne Sandstone formations. The underlying Jurassic Morrison Formation in southwest Kansas is also considered by state statute to be part of the Dakota system. The Dakota aquifer has been developed as a water-supply source where the groundwater is fresh or only slightly saline and where other more easily obtained water supplies are not available. A total of 2,237 wells with active water rights and active uses made of water as of the end of 2011 were determined to produce greater than 5% of their total yield from the Dakota aquifer. Most of these wells are located where the Dakota aquifer underlies the High Plains aquifer (HPA) in southwest Kansas. In the 36 counties in which water-right-permitted wells pump partially or solely from the Dakota aquifer, the wells with Dakota yield are estimated to comprise 9% of the total of wells with water-right permits in all aquifers. Most (78%) of the water-right-permitted wells that draw part or all of their water from the Dakota aquifer are used for irrigation. Stock, municipal, and industrial wells comprise nearly all of the other uses (9.6%, 8.9%, and 2.2%, respectively, of the wells with some Dakota yield). The mean annual volume of water used from the Dakota aquifer by water-right-permitted wells in Kansas is estimated to have been 117,000 acre-ft/yr (1.44 x 108 m3/yr) from 2006 to 2010. The use was greatest in southwest Kansas (approximately 86% of the total Dakota use). The mean annual use for other regions ranged from approximately 0.5% of the total Dakota use for west-central Kansas, to 2.4% for central, 2.9% for south-central, and 8.1% for north-central Kansas. Although Dakota water use in north-central Kansas was much lower than in southwest Kansas, the percent Dakota use relative to total use from all aquifers was the highest (nearly 20%) of all the regions. The percent Dakota use compared to total use from all aquifers for the other regions is 5.2% for southwest, 2.5% for central, 2.0% for south-central, and 0.4% for west-central Kansas. About 90% of the mean annual use from the Dakota aquifer during 2006-2010 was for irrigation, most of which was in southwest Kansas. For stock and municipal purposes, water usage was nearly 4% each of the total volume pumped from the Dakota aquifer. However, municipal demands accounted for 41% and 18% of the total use from the Dakota in central and north-central Kansas, respectively. The total number of "domestic" wells, defined as those for which water-right permits are not required, that currently produce most or all of their water from the Dakota aquifer in Kansas is estimated to be more than 11,000 (about 8,000 for north-central and central Kansas and nearly 3,200 for south-central, west-central, and southwest Kansas). Water use from the Dakota aquifer by "domestic" wells is estimated to be 4,800 acre-ft/yr (5.9 x 106 m3/yr) in central Kansas, 1,500 acre-ft/yr (1.9 x 106 m3/yr) in north-central Kansas, and a total of 1,700 acre-ft/yr (2.1 x 106 m3/yr) in south-central, west-central, and southwest Kansas. The total "domestic" well use (about 8,000 acre-ft/yr) is about 6.4% of the approximately 125,000 acre-ft/yr (1.54 x 108 m3/yr) pumped from the Dakota aquifer by both permitted and "domestic" wells in Kansas. The processes of mixing, reactive cation exchange, and mineral dissolution and precipitation have produced a complex range of chemical characteristics for groundwater in the Dakota aquifer. Water quality in the aquifer ranges from very fresh (<300 mg/L total dissolved solids [TDS]) to saltwater (>10,000 mg/L TDS). Freshwaters in the outcrop and subcrop portions of the Dakota aquifer in north-central and central Kansas are usually calcium-bicarbonate type waters. Calcium-sulfate type water in some regions can result from one of two processes: (1) weathering of pyrite in shales in Dakota strata and concomitant dissolution of calcite or dolomite and (2) recharge from upper Cretaceous strata that was affected by the same processes or by dissolution of gypsum. Large areas of the Dakota aquifer contain saline water (sodium-chloride type water) that was derived from the upward intrusion of saltwater from underlying Permian units, especially the Cedar Hills Sandstone in central and north-central Kansas. The saltwater is derived from the dissolution of evaporite deposits containing rock salt (halite) in the Permian. The salinity of groundwater in the Dakota aquifer generally increases with depth, particularly across substantial shale units of appreciable lateral extent that confine or separate aquifer units. Sodium-bicarbonate type water, which exists in parts of the confined Dakota aquifer in central and west-central Kansas, is generated by the flushing of saline water from the aquifer by groundwater recharge of calcium-bicarbonate or calcium-sulfate types. During this process, calcium (and magnesium) in the freshwater is exchanged for sodium on clays in Dakota strata. Fluoride concentrations increase in the sodium-bicarbonate water as a result of dissolution of calcium-containing fluoride minerals during the decrease in calcium in the groundwater caused by the exchange process. Fluoride concentrations exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 4 mg/L for public drinking water supply in some areas of the confined Dakota aquifer. About 10% of the sample records for the Dakota aquifer exceed the MCL for arsenic and the action level for lead, although some of the high lead values could be related to lead in plumbing systems. Uranium concentration and the radioactivity from radium isotopes and alpha particles exceed the MCL for public drinking waters in a small percentage of Dakota groundwaters. Many other natural constituents and properties in Dakota waters exceed recommended or suggested levels for drinking water, such as TDS, chloride, sulfate, iron, manganese, and ammonium ion concentrations, especially in saline water in the confined aquifer and in groundwaters that have chemically reducing conditions. The main contaminant from anthropogenic activities in Dakota groundwater is nitrate. Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations exceeding the MCL of 10 mg/L primarily occur in shallow wells in the unconfined aquifer in central and north-central Kansas. The expected sources are animal and human waste and fertilizer that enter groundwaters by shallow recharge or through the annular space of poorly constructed wells. Development of the Dakota aquifer has been dependent on both the hydrogeologic properties of the aquifer and the salinity of the groundwater. The Kansas Geological Survey has identified an area of nearly fresh to slightly saline waters in upper Dakota strata that could be important for future water supplies. The area is triangular in shape, with its base along the south lines of Sheridan and Graham counties and its northern extent into south-central Norton County. Another factor in aquifer development is the decline in the water table in the HPA where it overlies and is hydraulically connected to the Dakota aquifer in southwest Kansas. Many new wells have been completed in both the HPA and underlying Dakota strata. In cases in which the new construction is a replacement well, the previous well was often only completed in the HPA. Thus, the percentage of wells completed in both aquifers is increasing. Continued assessment of the water resources potential of the Dakota aquifer is especially needed in southwest Kansas but is difficult due to the very limited data for depth-to-water measurements in the Dakota in that area. A selected group of wells across the Dakota in southwestern Kansas should be equipped with continuous monitoring equipment so that a better understanding of the relationship between the Dakota and the overlying HPA can be obtained

Water Resources of the Dakota Aquifer in Kansas

The Dakota aquifer system underlies most of the western two-thirds of Kansas and includes sandstone units in the Cretaceous Dakota, Kiowa, and Cheyenne Sandstone formations. The underlying Jurassic Morrison Formation in southwest Kansas is also considered by state statute to be part of the Dakota system. The Dakota aquifer has been developed as a water-supply source where the groundwater is fresh or only slightly saline and where other more easily obtained water supplies are not available. A total of 2,237 wells with active water rights and active uses made of water as of the end of 2011 were determined to produce greater than 5% of their total yield from the Dakota aquifer. Most of these wells are located where the Dakota aquifer underlies the High Plains aquifer (HPA) in southwest Kansas. In the 36 counties in which water-right-permitted wells pump partially or solely from the Dakota aquifer, the wells with Dakota yield are estimated to comprise 9% of the total of wells with water-right permits in all aquifers. Most (78%) of the water-right-permitted wells that draw part or all of their water from the Dakota aquifer are used for irrigation. Stock, municipal, and industrial wells comprise nearly all of the other uses (9.6%, 8.9%, and 2.2%, respectively, of the wells with some Dakota yield). The mean annual volume of water used from the Dakota aquifer by water-right-permitted wells in Kansas is estimated to have been 117,000 acre-ft/yr (1.44 x 108 m3/yr) from 2006 to 2010. The use was greatest in southwest Kansas (approximately 86% of the total Dakota use). The mean annual use for other regions ranged from approximately 0.5% of the total Dakota use for west-central Kansas, to 2.4% for central, 2.9% for south-central, and 8.1% for north-central Kansas. Although Dakota water use in north-central Kansas was much lower than in southwest Kansas, the percent Dakota use relative to total use from all aquifers was the highest (nearly 20%) of all the regions. The percent Dakota use compared to total use from all aquifers for the other regions is 5.2% for southwest, 2.5% for central, 2.0% for south-central, and 0.4% for west-central Kansas. About 90% of the mean annual use from the Dakota aquifer during 2006-2010 was for irrigation, most of which was in southwest Kansas. For stock and municipal purposes, water usage was nearly 4% each of the total volume pumped from the Dakota aquifer. However, municipal demands accounted for 41% and 18% of the total use from the Dakota in central and north-central Kansas, respectively. The total number of "domestic" wells, defined as those for which water-right permits are not required, that currently produce most or all of their water from the Dakota aquifer in Kansas is estimated to be more than 11,000 (about 8,000 for north-central and central Kansas and nearly 3,200 for south-central, west-central, and southwest Kansas). Water use from the Dakota aquifer by "domestic" wells is estimated to be 4,800 acre-ft/yr (5.9 x 106 m3/yr) in central Kansas, 1,500 acre-ft/yr (1.9 x 106 m3/yr) in north-central Kansas, and a total of 1,700 acre-ft/yr (2.1 x 106 m3/yr) in south-central, west-central, and southwest Kansas. The total "domestic" well use (about 8,000 acre-ft/yr) is about 6.4% of the approximately 125,000 acre-ft/yr (1.54 x 108 m3/yr) pumped from the Dakota aquifer by both permitted and "domestic" wells in Kansas. The processes of mixing, reactive cation exchange, and mineral dissolution and precipitation have produced a complex range of chemical characteristics for groundwater in the Dakota aquifer. Water quality in the aquifer ranges from very fresh (<300 mg/L total dissolved solids [TDS]) to saltwater (>10,000 mg/L TDS). Freshwaters in the outcrop and subcrop portions of the Dakota aquifer in north-central and central Kansas are usually calcium-bicarbonate type waters. Calcium-sulfate type water in some regions can result from one of two processes: (1) weathering of pyrite in shales in Dakota strata and concomitant dissolution of calcite or dolomite and (2) recharge from upper Cretaceous strata that was affected by the same processes or by dissolution of gypsum. Large areas of the Dakota aquifer contain saline water (sodium-chloride type water) that was derived from the upward intrusion of saltwater from underlying Permian units, especially the Cedar Hills Sandstone in central and north-central Kansas. The saltwater is derived from the dissolution of evaporite deposits containing rock salt (halite) in the Permian. The salinity of groundwater in the Dakota aquifer generally increases with depth, particularly across substantial shale units of appreciable lateral extent that confine or separate aquifer units. Sodium-bicarbonate type water, which exists in parts of the confined Dakota aquifer in central and west-central Kansas, is generated by the flushing of saline water from the aquifer by groundwater recharge of calcium-bicarbonate or calcium-sulfate types. During this process, calcium (and magnesium) in the freshwater is exchanged for sodium on clays in Dakota strata. Fluoride concentrations increase in the sodium-bicarbonate water as a result of dissolution of calcium-containing fluoride minerals during the decrease in calcium in the groundwater caused by the exchange process. Fluoride concentrations exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 4 mg/L for public drinking water supply in some areas of the confined Dakota aquifer. About 10% of the sample records for the Dakota aquifer exceed the MCL for arsenic and the action level for lead, although some of the high lead values could be related to lead in plumbing systems. Uranium concentration and the radioactivity from radium isotopes and alpha particles exceed the MCL for public drinking waters in a small percentage of Dakota groundwaters. Many other natural constituents and properties in Dakota waters exceed recommended or suggested levels for drinking water, such as TDS, chloride, sulfate, iron, manganese, and ammonium ion concentrations, especially in saline water in the confined aquifer and in groundwaters that have chemically reducing conditions. The main contaminant from anthropogenic activities in Dakota groundwater is nitrate. Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations exceeding the MCL of 10 mg/L primarily occur in shallow wells in the unconfined aquifer in central and north-central Kansas. The expected sources are animal and human waste and fertilizer that enter groundwaters by shallow recharge or through the annular space of poorly constructed wells. Development of the Dakota aquifer has been dependent on both the hydrogeologic properties of the aquifer and the salinity of the groundwater. The Kansas Geological Survey has identified an area of nearly fresh to slightly saline waters in upper Dakota strata that could be important for future water supplies. The area is triangular in shape, with its base along the south lines of Sheridan and Graham counties and its northern extent into south-central Norton County. Another factor in aquifer development is the decline in the water table in the HPA where it overlies and is hydraulically connected to the Dakota aquifer in southwest Kansas. Many new wells have been completed in both the HPA and underlying Dakota strata. In cases in which the new construction is a replacement well, the previous well was often only completed in the HPA. Thus, the percentage of wells completed in both aquifers is increasing. Continued assessment of the water resources potential of the Dakota aquifer is especially needed in southwest Kansas but is difficult due to the very limited data for depth-to-water measurements in the Dakota in that area. A selected group of wells across the Dakota in southwestern Kansas should be equipped with continuous monitoring equipment so that a better understanding of the relationship between the Dakota and the overlying HPA can be obtained

Oral contraceptive use and ovarian cancer risk among carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations

Women with mutations of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 are at increased risk of ovarian cancer. Oral contraceptives protect against ovarian cancer in general, but it is not known whether they protect against the disease in carriers of these mutations. We obtained self-reported lifetime histories of oral contraceptive use from 451 women who carried mutations of BRCA1 or BRCA2. We used conditional logistic regression to estimate the odds ratios associated with oral contraceptive use, comparing the histories of 147 women with ovarian cancer (cases) to those of 304 women without ovarian cancer (controls) who were matched to cases on year of birth, country of residence and gene (BRCA1 vs BRCA2). Reference ages for controls had to exceed the ages at diagnosis of their matched cases. After adjusting for parity, the odds-ratio for ovarian cancer associated with use of oral contraceptives for at least 1 year was 0.85 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.53-1.36). The risk decreased by 5% (1-9%) with each year of use (P for trend=0.01). Use for 6 or more years was associated with an odds-ratio of 0.62 (0.35-1.09). These data support the hypothesis that long-term oral contraceptive use reduces the risk of ovarian cancer among women who carry mutations of BRCA1 or BRCA2

Prevalence of the most frequent BRCA1 mutations in Polish population

The purpose of our study was to establish the frequency and distribution of the four most common BRCA1 mutations in Polish general population and in a series of breast cancer patients. Analysis of the population frequency of 5382insC (c.5266dupC), 300T >G (p.181T >G), 185delAG (c.68_69delAG) and 3819del5 (c.3700_3704del5) mutations of the BRCA1 gene were performed on a group of respectively 16,849, 13,462, 12,485 and 3923 anonymous samples collected at birth in seven Polish provinces. The patient group consisted of 1845 consecutive female breast cancer cases. The most frequent BRCA1 mutation in the general population was 5382insC found in 29 out of 16,849 samples (0.17%). 300T >G and 3819del5 mutations were found in respectively 11 of 13,462 (0.08%) and four of 3923 (0.1%) samples. The population prevalence for combined Polish founder 5382insC and 300T >G mutations was 0.25% (1/400). The frequencies of 5382insC and 300T >G carriers among consecutive breast cancer cases were, respectively, 1.9% (35/1845) and 1.2% (18/1486). Comparing these data with the population frequency, we calculated the relative risk of breast cancer for 5382insC mutation at OR = 17 and for 300T >G mutation at OR = 26. Our results, based on large population studies, show high frequencies of founder 5382insC and 300T >G BRCA1 mutations in Polish general population. Carriage of one of these mutations is connected with a very high relative risk of breast cancer

Metodologias utilizadas para detectar distúrbios emocionais em clínicas de assistência primária à saúde: revisão de literatura

A series of studies in the field of Epidemiological Psychiatry have been performed over the last two decades, and these have focused on the ability of primary care physicians to detect emotional disorders in the patients that attend their practices. The scientific methodology utilized in these studies is the subject of this review, which contains a discussion concerning: a) interviewer awareness bias; b) accuracy of the instruments and c) medical and psychological concepts involved in defining minor emotional disorders. Suggestions for change in the methodology are made in each of the sections of the review.Na área de epidemiologia psiquiátrica vêm sendo realizados, nos últimos vinte anos, estudos que têm como finalidade medir a habilidade que clínicos gerais possuem em detectar distúrbios emocionais nos pacientes que procuram atendimento na rede básica de saúde. A metodologia utilizada nesses estudos é o tema central da atual revisão, que contém a) viés do entrevistador; b) acuidade dos instrumentos; e c) conceitos médicos e psicológicos envolvidos na definição de distúrbio psiquiátrico menor. São também apresentadas sugestões para mudanças de metodologia

Cell cycle genes and ovarian cancer susceptibility: a tagSNP analysis

BACKGROUND: Dysregulation of the cell cycle is a hallmark of many cancers including ovarian cancer, a leading cause of gynaecologic cancer mortality worldwide.METHODS: We examined single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (n = 288) from 39 cell cycle regulation genes, including cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and CDK inhibitors, in a two-stage study. White, non-Hispanic cases (n = 829) and ovarian cancer-free controls (n = 941) were genotyped using an Illumina assay.RESULTS: Eleven variants in nine genes (ABL1, CCNB2, CDKN1A, CCND3, E2F2, CDK2, E2F3, CDC2, and CDK7) were associated with risk of ovarian cancer in at least one genetic model. Seven SNPs were then assessed in four additional studies with 1689 cases and 3398 controls. Association between risk of ovarian cancer and ABL1 rs2855192 found in the original population [odds ratio, ORBB vs AA 2.81 (1.29-6.09), P = 0.01] was also observed in a replication population, and the association remained suggestive in the combined analysis [ORBB vs AA 1.59 (1.08-2.34), P = 0.02]. No other SNP associations remained suggestive in the replication populations.CONCLUSION: ABL1 has been implicated in multiple processes including cell division, cell adhesion and cellular stress response. These results suggest that characterization of the function of genetic variation in this gene in other ovarian cancer populations is warranted. British Journal of Cancer (2009) 101, 1461-1468. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605284 www.bjcancer.com Published online 8 September 2009 (C) 2009 Cancer Research U

Large family with both parents affected by distinct BRCA1 mutations: implications for genetic testing

Although the probability of both parents being affected by BRCA1 mutations is not negligible, such families have not been systematically described in the literature. Here we present a large breast-ovarian cancer family, where 3 sisters and 1 half-sister inherited maternal BRCA1 5382insC mutation while the remaining 2 sisters carried paternal BRCA1 1629delC allele. No BRCA1 homozygous mutations has been detected, that is consistent with the data on lethality of BRCA1 knockout mice. This report exemplifies that the identification of a single cancer-predisposing mutation within the index patient may not be sufficient in some circumstances. Ideally, all family members affected by breast or ovarian tumor disease have to be subjected to the DNA testing, and failure to detect the mutation in any of them calls for the search of the second cancer-associated allele