Long-Term Sustained Effect of Liver-Targeted Adeno-Associated Virus Gene Therapy for Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalomyopathy.

Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) is caused by mutations in TYMP, the gene encoding the enzyme thymidine phosphorylase (TP). TP dysfunction results in systemic accumulation of the noxious TP substrates thymidine and deoxyuridine. Gene therapy using either a lentiviral vector or adeno-associated vector (AAV) has proven to be a feasible strategy, as both vectors restore biochemical homeostasis in a murine model of the disease. This study shows that the effect of an AAV containing the TYMP coding sequence transcriptionally targeted to the liver persists long term in mice. Although the vector copy number was diluted and AAV-mediated liver TP activity eventually reduced or lost after 21 months at the lowest vector doses, the effect was sustained (with a negligible decrease in TP activity) and fully effective on nucleoside homeostasis for at least 21 months at a dose of 2 × 1012 vg/kg. Macroscopic visual inspection of the animals' organs at completion of the study showed no adverse effects associated with the treatment. These results further support the feasibility of gene therapy for MNGIE

Efficacy of adeno-associated virus gene therapy in a MNGIE murine model enhanced by chronic exposure to nucleosides

Preclinical studies have shown that gene therapy is a feasible approach to treat mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE). However, the genetic murine model of the disease (Tymp/Upp1 double knockout, dKO) has a limited functional phenotype beyond the metabolic imbalances, and so the studies showing efficacy of gene therapy have relied almost exclusively on demonstrating correction of the biochemical phenotype. Chronic oral administration of thymidine (dThd) and deoxyuridine (dUrd) to dKO mice deteriorates the phenotype of the animals, providing a better model to test therapy approaches. dKO mice were treated with both dThd and dUrd in drinking water from weaning until the end of the study. At 8 - 11 weeks of age, mice were treated with several doses of adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 8 vector carrying the human TYMP coding sequence under the control of different liver-specific promoters (TBG, AAT, or HLP). The biochemical profile and functional phenotype were studied over the life of the animals. Nucleoside exposure resulted in 30-fold higher plasma nucleoside levels in dKO mice compared with non-exposed wild type mice. AAV-treatment provided elevated TP activity in liver and lowered systemic nucleoside levels in exposed dKO mice. Exposed dKO mice had enlarged brain ventricles (assessed by magnetic resonance imaging) and motor impairment (rotarod test); both were prevented by AAV treatment. Among all promoters tested, AAT showed the best efficacy. Our results show that AAV-mediated gene therapy restores the biochemical homeostasis in the murine model of MNGIE and, for the first time, demonstrate that this treatment improves the functional phenotype. This work was funded in part by the Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III, and the Generalitat de Catalunya. The disclosed funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Two Novel Variants in YARS2 Gene Are Responsible for an Extended MLASA Phenotype with Pancreatic Insufficiency

Pathogenic variants in the mitochondrial tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase gene (YARS2) were associated with myopathy, lactic acidosis, and sideroblastic anemia (MLASA). However, patients can present mitochondrial myopathy, with exercise intolerance and muscle weakness, leading from mild to lethal phenotypes. Genes implicated in mtDNA replication were studied by Next Gener ation Sequencing (NGS) and whole exome sequence with the TruSeq Rapid Exome kit (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). Mitochondrial protein translation was studied following the Sasarman and Shoubridge protocol and oxygen consumption rates with Agilent Seahorse XF24 Analyzer Mi tostress Test, (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). We report two siblings with two novel compound heterozygous pathogenic variants in YARS2 gene: a single nucleotide deletion in exon 1, c.314delG (p.(Gly105Alafs*4)), which creates a premature stop codon in the amino acid 109, and a single nu cleotide change in exon 5 c.1391T>C (p.(Ile464Thr)), that cause a missense variant in amino acid 464. We demonstrate the pathogenicity of these new variants associated with reduced YARS2 mRNA transcript, reduced mitochondrial protein translation and dysfunctional organelle function. These pathogenic variants are responsible for late onset MLASA, herein accompanied by pancreatic insuf ficiency, observed in both brothers, clinically considered as Pearson's syndrome. Molecular study of YARS2 gene should be considered in patients presenting Pearson's syndrome characteristics and MLASA related phenotypes

Age-related metabolic changes limit efficacy of deoxynucleoside-based therapy in thymidine kinase 2-deficient mice

Thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) catalyses the phosphorylation of deoxythymidine (dThd) and deoxycytidine (dCtd) within mitochondria. TK2 deficiency leads to mtDNA depletion or accumulation of multiple deletions. In patients, TK2 mutations typically manifest as a rapidly progressive myopathy with infantile onset, leading to respiratory insufficiency and encephalopathy in the most severe clinical presentations. TK2-deficient mice develop the most severe form of the disease and die at average postnatal day 16. dThd+dCtd administration delayed disease progression and expanded lifespan of a knockin murine model of the disease. We daily administered TK2 knockout mice (Tk2 KO) from postnatal day 4 with equimolar doses of dThd+dCtd, dTMP+dCMP, dThd alone or dCtd alone. We monitored body weight and survival and studied different variables at 12 or 29 days of age. We determined metabolite levels in plasma and target tissues, mtDNA copy number in tissues, and the expression and activities of enzymes with a relevant role in mitochondrial dNTP anabolism or catabolism. dThd+dCtd treatment extended average lifespan of Tk2 KO mice from 16 to 34 days, attenuated growth retardation, and rescued mtDNA depletion in skeletal muscle and other target tissues of 12-day-old mice, except in brain. However, the treatment was ineffective in 29-day-old mice that still died prematurely. Bioavailability of dThd and dCtd markedly decreased during mouse development. Activity of enzymes catabolizing dThd and dCtd increased with age in small intestine. Conversely, the activity of the anabolic enzymes decreased in target tissues during mouse development. We also found that administration of dThd alone had the same impact on survival to that of dThd+dCtd, whereas dCtd alone had no influence on lifespan. dThd+dCtd treatment recruits alternative cytosolic salvage pathways for dNTP synthesis, suggesting that this therapy would be of benefit for any Tk2 mutation. dThd accounts for the therapeutic effect of the combined treatment in mice. During the first weeks after birth, mice experience marked tissue-specific metabolic regulations and ontogenetic changes in dNTP metabolism-related enzymes that limit therapeutic efficacy to early developmental stages. This study was funded by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Industry, Economy and Competitiveness, the Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Fundación Inocente, Inocente, AFM Téléthon and the Generalitat de Catalunya. The disclosed funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Therapy Prospects for Mitochondrial DNA Maintenance Disorders

Esgotament; Teràpia gènica; MitocondrisMitochondria; Depletion; Gene therapyAgotamiento; Terapia génica; MitocondriasMitochondrial DNA depletion and multiple deletions syndromes (MDDS) constitute a group of mitochondrial diseases defined by dysfunctional mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication and maintenance. As is the case for many other mitochondrial diseases, the options for the treatment of these disorders are rather limited today. Some aggressive treatments such as liver transplantation or allogeneic stem cell transplantation are among the few available options for patients with some forms of MDDS. However, in recent years, significant advances in our knowledge of the biochemical pathomechanisms accounting for dysfunctional mtDNA replication have been achieved, which has opened new prospects for the treatment of these often fatal diseases. Current strategies under investigation to treat MDDS range from small molecule substrate enhancement approaches to more complex treatments, such as lentiviral or adenoassociated vector-mediated gene therapy. Some of these experimental therapies have already reached the clinical phase with very promising results, however, they are hampered by the fact that these are all rare disorders and so the patient recruitment potential for clinical trials is very limited

Avenços en la teràpia gènica per al MNGIE amb vectors adenoassociats : validació en un model millorat de la malaltia i optimització de seqüència del gen terapèutic

El MNGIE és una malaltia mitocondrial d'herència autosòmica recessiva causada per mutacions en el gen TYMP, que codifica l'enzim timidina fosforilasa (TP). La TP catalitza la degradació de timidina (dThd) i desoxiuridina (dUrd), i la seva absència en pacients causa l'acumulació sistèmica d'aquests metabòlits, tòxica per la funció mitocondrial. A dia d'avui les úniques teràpies efectives són el transplantament de cèl·lules mare hematopoètiques i el transplantament de fetge. No obstant, els transplantaments estan limitats per la necessitat d'un donant compatible i tenen una taxa de mortalitat i morbiditat associada especialment elevada en pacients de MNGIE. Per a superar aquests inconvenients, fa temps vam proposar la teràpia gènica mitjançant vectors adenoassociats (rAAV) dirigits al fetge com a alternativa terapèutica, i vam demostrar la seva viabilitat en el model animal de MNGIE, el ratolí doble knockout (dKO) Tymp-/-Upp1-/-. Però aquest model només presenta fenotip bioquímic, de manera que només vam poder demostrar la correcció d'aquest fenotip. Al 2014 es va descriure que augmentant el desequilibri metabòlic mitjançant l'administració oral de dThd i dUrd al model dKO durant tota la seva vida provocava l'aparició d'alguns trets que reproduïen la simptomatologia clínica dels pacients. En aquesta tesi hem estudiat l'ús de la teràpia gènica en aquest model millorat, mitjançant el tractament amb tres rAAVs que expressaven la seqüència codificant de TYMP sota el control de 3 promotors hepàtics a diferents dosis. El tractament amb rAAV va incrementar l'activitat TP en fetge i va disminuir la concentració sistèmica de nucleòsids dels ratolins dKO, que sense tractament eren 30 vegades superiors als valors normals. A nivell fenotípic, en la majoria dels ratolins, el tractament també va prevenir l'increment del volum dels ventricles cerebrals i el deteriorament motor observats en els ratolins no tractats. Quan vam comparar els tres vectors utilitzats, el rAAV amb el promotor de l'alfa-1-antitripsina (AAT) va ser el més eficaç. Aquests resultats confirmen que la teràpia gènica mediada per rAAV dirigida al fetge restaura l'homeòstasi bioquímica i demostren la prevenció de l'aparició del fenotip clínic del model animal millorat de MNGIE. Un altre aspecte important per a la translació de la teràpia a la pràctica clínica és optimitzar el vector per tal de reduir-ne la dosi efectiva. En aquest sentit, hem testat dues aproximacions: la modificació de la seqüència codificant (ADNc) del gen segons la freqüència d'ús de codó per a incrementar la seva expressió, i l'eliminació dels dinucleòtids CpG de l'ADNc del gen per a reduir la immunogenicitat del vector. Vam dissenyar quatre seqüències optimitzades de l'ADNc de TYMP amb 4 algoritmes diferents. Vam generar vectors lentivirals per transduir 4 línies cel·lulars humanes i determinar l'eficiència d'expressió de cada seqüència comparada amb la seqüència salvatge, tenint en compte el grau d'activitat TP, el número de còpies del vector i els nivells relatius d'ARNm. De tots els experiments, només una seqüència optimitzada va millorar el grau d'expressió de TYMP respecte el de la seqüència salvatge en la línia cel·lular hepàtica Huh7. Pel que fa a la reducció de la immunogenicitat del vector, vam eliminar els dinucleòtids CpG de les seqüències dissenyades i vam analitzar el grau d'expressió de TYMP. Només la seqüència salvatge sense dinucleòtids CpG es va acostar a l'expressió de la seqüència natural. Tot i que s'hi observa una reducció d'expressió aproximada del 20%, es compensa per l'avantatge que aporta en termes de reducció de la resposta immunològica de cara a l'ús clínic del vector. En conclusió recomanem aquesta versió sota la regulació del promotor AAT per a ús eventual en la pràctica clínica.El MNGIE (Mitochondrial NeuroGastroIntestinal Encephalomyopathy) es una enfermedad mitocondrial de herencia autosómica recesiva causada por mutaciones en el gen TYMP, que codifica la enzima timidina fosforilasa (TP). La TP cataliza la degradación de timidina (dThd) y desoxiuridina (dUrd), y su ausencia en pacientes causa la acumulación sistémica de estos metabolitos, tóxica para la función mitocondrial. Hoy en día, las únicas terapias efectives son el trasplante de células madre hematopoyéticas y el trasplante de hígado. No obstante, los trasplantes están limitados por la necesidad de un donante compatible y tienen una tasa de mortalidad y morbididad asociada especialmente elevada en pacientes de MNGIE. Para superar estos inconvenientes, hace tiempo propusimos la terapia génica mediante vectores adenoasociados (rAAV) dirigidos al hígado como alternativa terapéutica, y demostramos su viabilidad en el modelo animal de MNGIE, el ratón doble knockout (dKO) Tymp-/-Upp1-/-. Pero este modelo solo presenta fenotipo bioquímico, de forma que solo pudimos demostrar la corrección de este fenotipo. En 2014 se describió que aumentando el desequilibrio metabólico mediante la administración oral de dThd y dUrd al modelo dKO durante toda su vida provocaba la aparición de algunos rasgos que reproducían la sintomatología clínica de los pacientes. En esta tesis hemos estudiado el uso de la terapia génica en este modelo mejorado, mediante el tratamiento con tres rAAVs que expresan la secuencia codificante de TYMP bajo el control de tres promotores hepáticos a distintas dosis. El tratamiento con rAAV incrementó la actividad TP hepática y disminuyo la concentración sistémica de nucleósidos de los ratones dKO, (sin tratamiento eren 30 veces superiores a los valores normales). A nivel fenotípico, en la mayoría de los ratones, el tratamiento también previno el aumento del volumen de los ventrículos cerebrales y el deterioro motor observados en los ratones no tratados. Cuando comparamos los tres vectores utilitzados, el rAAV con el promotor de la alfa-1-antitripsina (AAT) fue el más eficaz. Estos resultados confirman que la terapia génica por rAAV dirigida al hígado restaura la homeóstasis bioquímica y demuestran la prevención de la aparición del fenotipo clínico del modelo animal mejorado de MNGIE. Otro aspecto importante para la translación de la terapia a la práctica clínica es optimizar el vector para reducir la dosis efectiva. En este sentido, hemos testado dos aproximaciones: la modificación de la secuencia codificante (ADNc) del gen según la frecuencia de uso de codón para aumentar su expresión, y la eliminación de los dinucleótidos CpG del ADNc del gen para reducir la immunogenicidad del vector. Diseñamos cuatro secuencies optimizadas del ADNc de TYMP utilitzando 4 algoritmos diferentes. Generamos vectores lentivirales para transducir 4 líneas celulares humanas y determinar la eficiencia de expresión de cada secuencia comparada con la secuencia natural, teniendo en cuenta el grado de actividad TP, el número de copias del vector y los niveles relativos de ARNm. De todos los experimentos, solo una secuencia optimizada mejoró el grado de expresión de TYMP comparado con el de la secuencia natural, en la línea celular hepática Huh7. En cuanto a la reducción de la immunogenicidad del vector, eliminamos los dinucleótidos CpG de las secuencias diseñadas y analizamos el nivel de expresión de TYMP. Solo la secuencia natural sin dinucleótidos CpG se acercó a la expresión de la secuencia natural. Aunque se observa una reducción de expresión aproximada del 20%, se compensa con la ventaja que aporta en términos de reducción de la respuesta inmunológica de cara al uso clínico del vector. En conclusión, entre las opciones testadas, recomendamos el rAAV que contiene el ADNc natural de TYMP sin dinucleótidos CpG bajo el control del promotor AAT para un uso eventual en la práctica clínica.MNGIE (Mitochondrial NeuroGastroIntestinal Encephalomyopathy) is an autosomal recessive disease caused by mutations in TYMP, which encodes for the enzyme thymidine phosphorylase (TP). TP catalyses the first step of the catabolism of the nucleosides thymidine (dThd) and deoxyuridine (dUrd). The lack of TP activity causes systemic nucleoside accumulation which is toxic for mitochondrial function. Nowadays, the only available therapies for MNGIE are allogeneic hematopoetic stem cell transplantation or liver transplantation. However, these treatments are limited by the need of a compatible donor and are associated to high mortality and morbidity rates in MNGIE patients. To overcome these limitations, our laboratory proposed adenoassociated virus (rAAV) mediated gene therapy targeted to the liver for MNGIE and demonstrated its feasibility in the Tymp-/- Upp1-/- (dKO) mouse model of the disease. However, dKO mice show biochemical phenotype only, therefore we could only demonstrate the efficacy of our approach at the biochemical level. In 2014 it was reported that increasing the biochemical imbalances of the dKO model by chronic oral administration of dThd and dUrd to dKO mice over their entire life induced some features that recapitulate part of the clinical manifestations observed in patients. In this thesis we have studied the effect of gene therapy in this enhanced model, by treating the animals with three rAAVs expressing the human TYMP coding sequence under the control of three different liver-specific promoters. rAAV treatment increased liver TP activity and limited the systemic nucleoside concentration present in the dKO enhanced model, which was 30-fold higher as compared with non-exposed wild-type mice. AAV-treatment also prevented, in most animals, the enlarged brain ventricles and the motor impairment observed in the exposed dKO mice. When we compared the three promoters tested, the rAAV containing the AAT promoter showed the best efficacy. These results confirm that AAV-mediated gene therapy restores the biochemical homeostasis and demonstrate that this treatment prevents the clinical phenotype developed by the enhanced murine model of MNGIE. Another key point for the clinical translation of gene therapy is the optimization of the therapeutic gene expression to reduce the vector dose. For this reason, we tested two approaches: modification of the coding sequence of TYMP based on the codon use frequency to increase the expression of the gene, and CpG dinucleotide removal from the coding sequence to reduce immunogenicity of the vector. We designed four different codon-optimized sequences of the TYMP coding sequence, using four different algorithms. We cloned each optimized sequence in a lentiviral vector and transduced 4 different human cell lines. We analysed the degree of expression achieved with each sequence, as compared with the non-optimized wild-type TYMP sequence through evaluation of TP activity, vector copy number, and mRNA levels in the cell lines. Among all the sequences studied, only one optimized sequence resulted in higher TP activity when expressed per vector copy number in the hepatic cell line Huh7. To reduce the immunogenicity of the vector we removed the CpG dinucleotides from the wild-type coding TYMP sequence and two codon-optimized TYMP sequences. The wild-type sequence without CpG was the only one showing expression levels similar to those of the wild-type sequence. Even though the CpG free sequence shows a reduced expression of about 20% of that observed in the wild-type sequence, it is compensated by the advantages associated to the absence of CpG sites in terms of reduction of the immunological response when considering the vector for clinical use. In conclusion, among the different options tested, we recommend the rAAV vector containing the wild-type coding TYMP CpG-free sequence under the control of the AAT promoter for its use in the clinical practice.Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Programa de Doctorat en Bioquímica, Biologia Molecular i Biomedicin

Alpha-1-Antitrypsin Promoter Improves the Efficacy of an Adeno-Associated Virus Vector for the Treatment of Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalomyopathy

International audienceMitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) is a devastating disease caused by mutations in TYMP, which encodes thymidine phosphorylase (TP). In MNGIE patients, TP dysfunction results in systemic thymidine and deoxyuridine overload, which interferes with mitochondrial DNA replication. Preclinical studies have shown that gene therapy using a lentiviral vector targeted to hematopoietic stem cells or an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector transcriptionally targeted to liver are feasible approaches to treat MNGIE. Here, we studied the effect of various promoters (thyroxine-binding globulin [TBG], phosphoglycerate kinase [PGK], hybrid liver-specific promoter [HLP], and alpha-1-antitrypsin [AAT]) and DNA configuration (single stranded or self complementary) on expression of the TYMP transgene in the AAV8 serotype in a murine model of MNGIE. All vectors restored liver TP activity and normalized nucleoside homeostasis in mice. However, the liver-specific promoters TBG, HLP, and AAT were more effective than the constitutive PGK promoter, and the self-complementary DNA configuration did not provide any therapeutic advantage over the single-stranded configuration. Among all constructs, only AAV-AAT was effective in all mice treated at the lowest dose (5 × 1010 vector genomes/kg). As use of the AAT promoter will likely minimize the dose needed to achieve clinical efficacy as compared to the other promoters tested, we propose using the AAT promoter in the vector eventually designed for clinical use

Red Temática “Estudio de la disponibilidad de rocas silíceas para la producción de instrumental lítico en la prehistoria”

III Reunión de trabajo sobre aprovisionamiento de recursos abióticos en la prehistoria, celebrada en Loja (Granada) en 2004.La contribución que aporta este trabajo puede resultar un tanto peculiar al no corresponder a la presentación de los resultados obtenidos a partir del estudio de un registro arqueológico particular. Se trata más bien de presentar una iniciativa reciente, que tiene que ver con el diseño de una estrategia colectiva de investigación en torno a la explotación prehistórica de recursos abióticos de naturaleza silícea en el marco del nordeste peninsular.Peer reviewe