Diversità della microflora nella carne e nei prodotti a base di carne

Sažetak Pod mesom na tržištu ili u preradi podrazumijeva se mišićje (mišićno tkivo), s kožom ili bez nje, ovisno o vrsti stoke, peradi ili divljači, s pripadnim masnim i vezivnim tkivom, kostima i hrskavicama, krvnim i limfnim žilama, limfnim čvorovima i živcima u prirodnoj vezi. S obzirom na kemijski sastav meso je izrazito pogodan medij za rast i razmnožavanje različitih mikroorganizama. Glavni izvori primarne (početne) mikroflore mesa su same životinje, radnici koji manipuliraju mesom, te proizvodna okolina. U primarnoj mikroflori prevladavaju gram-negativne bakterije uključujući crijevne bakterije Escherichia coli i Salmonella spp., te Pseudomonas spp., a od gram-pozitivnih najčešće se nalaze laktobacili i enterokoki. Na svježem trupu se može očekivati i veliki broj plijesni od kojih prevladavaju predstavnici rodova Penicillium, Mucor i Cladosporium, a od kvasaca rodovi Candida i Rhodotorula. Preživljavanje primarne mikroflore mesa ovisi o stupnju kontaminiranosti (ukupnom broju mikroorganizama), vrsti mikroorganizama, kemijskom sastavu i pH mesa te temperaturi i prisutnosti kisika. Mikroorganizmi su s jedne strane uzročnici kvarenja mesa, ali istodobno svojim metabolizmom pridonose zrenju mesa, te konačnoj boji, okusu i mirisu mesa i mesnih prerađevina. Poznavanje optimalnih uvjeta rasta, razvoja i razmnožavanja pojedinih mikroorganizama omogućava upravljanje kvalitetom i održivošću mesa i mesnih proizvoda, te kreiranje tehnoloških postupaka prerade i metoda konzerviranja, a temelj su i za funkcionalno korištenje mikroorganizama u proizvodnji mesnih prerađevina.The term meat on the market or in processing implies muscles (muscle tissue) with skin or without it, depending on the kind of cattle, poultry or game, with belonging adipose or connective tissue, bones and cartilages, blood and lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and nerves in a natural connection. Considering the chemical content, meat is a very favorable medium for growth and reproduction of different microbes. The main sources of primary (initial) microflora of meat are the animals themselves, workers who manipulate with meat, and production environment. Gram- negative bacteria, including intestinal bacteria Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp., and Pseudomonas spp., prevail in primary microflora, while out of gram– positive bacteria, lactobacilli and enterococci are most frequently found. On a fresh carcass there could be expected a high mold count, of which Penicillium, Mucor and Cladosporium prevail, and Candida and Rhodotorula genera of yeasts. The survival of primary microflora of meat depends on the degree of contamination (total microbial count), type of microorganisms, chemical content and pH value of meat, then temperature and the presence of oxygen. On the one hand microorganisms are the causative agents of meat decay, but on the other, they contribute to ripening of meat, as well as to the final color, taste and odor of meat and meat products. Being familiar with optimal conditions of growth, development and reproduction of individual microbes enables managing the quality and sustainability of meat and meat products, as well as creating technological procedures of processing and methods of preservation. It is also a basis for a functional use of microbes in the production of meat products.Zusammenfassung Unter dem Begriff Fleisch wird auf dem Markt und in der Verarbeitungsindustrie folgendes verstanden: Muskelgewebe, mit oder ohne Haut, abhängig von Viehsorte, Geflügel oder Wild, mit dazugehörigen Fett- und Bindegewebe, Knochen, Knorpel, Blut- und Lymphgefäßen, Lymphknoten und Nerven in natürlicher Verbindung. In Bezug auf die chemische Zusammensetzung ist Fleisch ein ausdrücklich günstiges Medium für Wachstum und Vermehrung verschiedener Mikroorganismen. Die Hauptquellen der primären (anfänglichen) Mikroflora in Fleisch sind die Tiere selbst, Arbeiter die mit Fleisch manipulieren, sowie die Umgebung, in der die Herstellung stattfindet. In der primären Mikroflora sind die gramnegative Bakterien vorwiegend, einschließlich Darmbakterien Escherichia coli und Salmonella spp, sowie Pseudomonas spp, und von den grampositiven sind Laktobazillen und Enterokokken vorwiegend. An dem frischen Kadaver ist eine große Zahl von Schimmelsubstanzen zu erwarten, vorwiegend aus der Gattung Penicillinum, Mucor und Cladosporium, von den Hefesubstanzen Candida und Rhodotorula. Das Überleben der primären Mikroflora in Fleisch hängt vom Kontaminierungsgrad ab (gesamte Zahl der Mikroorganismen), Art der Mikroorganismen, chemischer Fleischzusammensetzung und pH, sowie Temperatur und Anwesenheit des Sauerstoffes.Die Mikroorganismen sind einerseits die Erreger des Fleischverderbens, andererseits bringen sie mit ihrem Metabolismus dem Fleischreifen, der Finalfarbe, dem Geschmack und dem Geruch der Finalprodukte bei. Das Kennen der optimalen Wuchsbedingungen, der Entwicklung und der Vermehrung von einzelnen Mikroorganismen ermöglicht die Herrschaft über die Qualität und Erhaltbarkeit von Fleisch und Fleischerzeugnissen, sowie die Kreierung der technologischen Verarbeitungsverfahren und Konservierungsmethoden. Sie stellen die Grundlage für die funktionale Nutzung der Mikroorganismen in der Herstellung von Fleischerzeugnissen dar.Sommario Il termine ‘carne’ sul mercato sottintende il tessuto muscolare, con la pelle o senza (la cosa che dipende del tipo di bestiame, pollame o selvaggina) con l’appartenente tessuto grasso e connettivo, ossa e cartilagine, vasi sanguini e linfatici, nodi linfatici e nervi nella connessione naturale. Per quanto riguarda la sua composizione chimica, la carne è un medio straordinariamente addatto alla crescita e riproduzione di diversi microorganismi. Le fonti principali di microflora primaria (iniziale) della carne sono gli animali stessi, gli operai che manovrano la carne, e l’ambito produttivo. Nella microflora primaria prevalgono i batteri gram-negativi insieme con i batteri intestinali del genere Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. e Pseudomonas spp. Dei batteri gram-positivi i lattobacilli e gli enterococchi sono i più frequenti. Sulla carcassa fresca è da aspettare un numero grande di muffa, dove prevalgono i rappresentanti dei generi Penicillium, Mucor i Cladosporium, e dai lieviti i generi Candida i Rhodotorula. La sopravvivenza della microflora primaria della carne dipende dal grado di contaminazione (il numero totale di microorganismi), tipo di microorganismi, composizione chimica, pH della carne e la temperatura e presenza di ossigeno. I microorganismi sono da una parte quelli che causano la decomposizione della carne, e dall’altra contemporaneamente con il suo metabolismo aiutano la maturazione della carne, ed il colore, gusto e aroma di carne e di prodotti a base di carne. La conoscenza di condizioni ottimali per la crescita, sviluppo e riproduzione di certi microorganismi favoriscono la direzione qualità e sostenibilità della carne e di prodotti a base di carne, e la creazione di procedimenti tecnologici di produzione di alimenti e di metodi di conservazione, che sono fondamentali per l’uso di microorganismi nella produzione di prodotti a base di carne

Herd specific risk factors for Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infections in suckling pigs at the age of weaning

BACKGROUND Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the etiologic agent of enzootic pneumonia mainly occurring in fattening pigs. It is assumed that horizontal transmission of the pathogen during nursery and growing phase starts with few suckling pigs vertically infected by the sow. The aim of the present study was the exploration of the herd prevalence of M. hyopneumoniae infections in suckling pigs followed by an investigation of various herd specific factors for their potential of influencing the occurrence of this pathogen at the age of weaning. RESULTS In this cross-sectional study, 125 breeding herds were examined by taking nasal swabs from 20 suckling pigs in each herd. In total, 3.9% (98/2500) of all nasal swabs were tested positive for M. hyopneumoniae by real-time PCR. Piglets tested positive originated from 46 different herds resulting in an overall herd prevalence of 36.8% (46/125) for M. hyopneumoniae infection in pigs at the age of weaning. While the herds were epidemiologically characterized, the risk for demonstration of M. hyopneumoniae was significantly increased, when the number of purchased gilts per year was more than 120 (OR: 5.8), and when the number of farrowing pens per compartment was higher than 16 (OR: 3.3). In herds with a planned and segregated production, where groups of sows entered previously emptied farrowing units, the risk for demonstration of M. hyopneumoniae in piglets was higher in herds with two or four weeks between batches than in herds with one or three weeks between batches (OR: 2.7). CONCLUSIONS In this cross-sectional study, several risk factors could be identified enhancing the probability of breeding herds to raise suckling pigs already infected with M. hyopneumoniae at the time of weaning. Interestingly, some factors (farrowing rhythm, gilt acclimatisation issues) were overlapping with those also influencing the seroprevalences among sows or the transmission of the pathogen between older age groups. Taking the multifactorial character of enzootic pneumonia into account, the results of this study substantiate that a comprehensive herd specific prevention programme is a prerequisite to reduce transmission of and disease caused by M. hyopneumoniae

Development of learning objectives for neurology in a veterinary curriculum: Part II: Postgraduates

Background: Specialization in veterinary medicine in Europe is organized through the Colleges of the European Board of Veterinary Specialization. To inform updating of the curriculum for residents of the European College of Veterinary Neurology (ECVN) job analysis was used. Defining job competencies of diploma holders in veterinary neurology can be used as references for curriculum design of resident training. With the support of the diplomates of the ECVN and the members of the European Society of Veterinary Neurology (ESVN) a mixed-method research, including a qualitative search of objectives and quantitative ranking with 149 Likert scale questions and 48 free text questions in 9 categories in a survey was conducted. In addition, opinions of different groups were subjected to statistical analysis and the result compared. Results: A return rate of 62% (n = 213/341) was achieved. Of the competencies identified by the Delphi process, 75% objectives were expected to attain expert level; 24% attain advanced level; 1% entry level. In addition, the exercise described the 11 highly ranked competencies, the 3 most frequently seen diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems and the most frequently used immunosuppressive, antiepileptic and chemotherapeutic drugs. Conclusion: The outcomes of this “Delphi job analysis” provide a powerful tool to align the curriculum for ECVN resident training and can be adapted to the required job competencies, based on expectations. The expectation is that for majority of these competencies diplomates should attain an expert level. Besides knowledge and clinical skills, residents and diplomates are expected to demonstrate high standards in teaching and communication. The results of this study will help to create a European curriculum for postgraduate education in veterinary neurology

Qualità delle orate che provengono da allevamenti e quelle dal mare aperto

Sažetak Riba kao hrana životinjskog podrijetla oduvijek je bila iznimno važna u prehrani ljudi, i to ne samo svog svojih gastronomskih osobina već zbog svojih nutritivnih vrijednosti. U radu je uspoređena kakvoća komarči uzgojenih u ribogojilištu i onih ulovljenih u slobodnom moru. U tu je svrhu obavljena senzorna i parazitološka pretraga riba, utvrđen kemijski sastav (voda, mast, bjelančevine i pepeo), te masnokiselinski sastav. Uzorkovano je ukupno 60 komarči, pri čemu je 30 riba potjecalo iz kaveznog uzgoja, a 30 uzoraka je komarča izlovljena iz slobodnog mora na području Šibenika. Senzornom ocjenom komarči 55 uzoraka ocijenjeno je besprijekornima. U svega 5 uzoraka ribe iz slobodnog ulova pojavilo se odstupanje senzornih svojstava u smislu zamućenja leće. U riba iz ribogojilišta utvrđena je prosječna količina vode od 72,03 %, masti 9,06%, bjelančevina 16,39 % i pepela 1,99%, a za ribe izlovljene u slobodnom moru, koli- čina vode prosječno je iznosila 76,52 %, masti 1,59 %, bjelančevina 18,61 % i pepela 1,86%. Za komarče iz ribogojilišta omjer n-3 i n-6 iznosi od 3,1 do čak 11,9. U uzorcima riba iz slobodnog ulova omjer n -3 u odnosu na n -6 iznosi 0,6. Po svojim senzornim svojstvima, kemijskom sastavu i masnoskielinskom sastavu riba iz intenzivnog uzgoja ne garantira konstantne hranjive vrijednosti i kakvoću, jer ovisi o uvjetima uzgoja na pojedinim ribogojilištima.Fish has always been very important in human nutrition as the food of animal origin, not only for its gastronomic characteristics, but also because of its nutritional value. The paper compares the quality of farmed gilthead sea breams from fish-farms with the quality of those caught in the open sea. For this purpose there was performed sensory and parasitological research of fish, a chemical compo- sition (water, fat, proteins and ash) was determined, as well as the fatty-acid content. A total of 60 gilthead sea breams were sampled, in which process 30 fish originated from cage breeding and 30 samples were fish caught in the area of Šibenik. Sensory evaluation of gilthead sea breams assessed 55 samples as flawless. There was an aberration in sensory characteristics in terms of lens opacity in only five fish samples from the open sea. In fish from fish farms there was determined an average content of 72.03 % of water, 9.06% of fat, 16.39 % of proteins and 1.99% of ash, and for the fish from the open sea there was an average quantity of 76.52 % of water, 1.59 % of fat, 18.61 % of proteins and 1.86% of ash. For the gilthead sea breams from the fish-farm the ratio of n-3 to n-6 is from 3.1 to even 11.9. In fish samples from the open sea the n-3 in comparison to n-6 ratio is 0.6. By its sensory characteristics, chemical composition and fatty-acid content, fish from intensive farming do not guarantee constant nutritional values and quality, because they depend on farming conditions at individual fish-farms.Zusammenfassung Fisch als Nahrung animaler Herkunft hatte seit je eine äußerst wichtige Bedeutung in menschlicher Ernährung, u.zw. nicht nur wegen seiner gastronomischen Eigenschaften sondern wegen der nutritiven Werte. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Qalität der Goldbrasse aus der Zucht oder gefangen am offenen Meer verglichen. Zu diesem Zwecke wurde die sensorische und die parasitische Untersuchung der Fische vorgenommen, es wurden die chemische Zusammensetzung (Wasser, Fett, Eiweißstoffe und Asche) und die fettsäuerliche Zusammensetzung bestimmt. Zu Musterprobe wurden 60 Goldbrassen genommen, davon 30 aus der Zucht (Käfige) und 30 Stück ge- fangen am offenen Meer im Gebiet von Šibenik. Durch die sensorische Bewertung der Fische wurden 55 als einwandfrei bewertet. Bei nur 5 Fischmustern aus dem freien Fang wurde die Abweichung von sensorischen Eigenschaften wegen Linsentrübheit gesichtet. Bei den Fischen aus der Zucht wurde die durchschnittliche Wassermenge von 72,03 %, Fett 9,06 %, Eiweißstoffe 16,39 % und Asche 1,99 % festgestellt. Für die Fische gefangen am offenen Meer wurde die durchschnitttliche Wassermenge 76,52 %, Fett 1,59 %, Eiweißstoffe 18,61 % und Asche 1,86 % vorgefunden. Für Goldbrassen aus der Zucht war das Verhältnis n-3 und n-6 von 3,1 bis sogar 11,9. In den Fischmustern aus freiem Fang war das Verhältnis n-3 in Bezug auf n-6 0,6. Nach seinen sensorischen Eigenschaften, chemischer Zu- sammensetzung und fettsäuerlicher Zusammensetzung garantiert der Fisch aus intensiver Zucht nicht konstante nutritive Werte und Qualität , weil dies von Zuchbedingungen in verschiedenen Fischzuchten abhängt.Sommario Il pesce come un alimento d’origine animale aveva da sempre un ruolo molto importante nell’alimentazione umana, non solo per le sue caratteristiche gastronomiche, ma anche per il suo valore nutritivo. In questo lavoro è stata confrontata la qualità dell’orata da allevamento e quella dal mare aperto. Perciò sono stati fatti gli esami sensorici e parassitologici dei campioni di orata, ed è stata determinata la loro composizione chimica (acqua, grassi, proteine, ceneri), e la composizione degli acidi grassi. Sono stati esaminati 60 campioni di orata: 30 di loro provenivano da allevamento e 30 dal mare aperto della zona di Šibenik (Dalmazia). Mediante la valutazione sensorica 55 campioni sono stati determinati come perfetti. In 5 campioni è stata scoperta l’opacità degli occhi. Nei cam- pioni da allevamento la quantità media dell’acqua faceva il 72,03%, dei grassi il 9,06%, delle proteine il 16,39% e delle ceneri l’1,99%. Nei campioni presi dal mare aperto la quantità media dell’acqua faceva il 76,52%, dei grassi l’1,59%, delle proteine il 18,61% e delle ceneri l’1,86%. Per le orate da allevamento la percentuale di n-3 e n-6 era da 3,1 a 11,9. Nei campioni del pesce proveniente dal mare aperto la percentuale di n-3 rispetto a n-6 faceva 0,6. Si è venuto alla conclusione che secondo le loro caratteristiche sensoriche, la composizione chimica e la composizione degli acidi grassi, il pesce dall’allevamento intenso non garantisce i valori nutritivi costanti e la qualità, perché dipende dalle condizioni d’allevamento

Community incidence of pathogen-specific gastroenteritis: reconstructing the surveillance pyramid for seven pathogens in seven European Union member states.

By building reconstruction models for a case of gastroenteritis in the general population moving through different steps of the surveillance pyramid we estimated that millions of illnesses occur annually in the European population, leading to thousands of hospitalizations. We used data on the healthcare system in seven European Union member states in relation to pathogen characteristics that influence healthcare seeking. Data on healthcare usage were obtained by harmonized cross-sectional surveys. The degree of under-diagnosis and underreporting varied by pathogen and country. Overall, underreporting and under-diagnosis were estimated to be lowest for Germany and Sweden, followed by Denmark, The Netherlands, UK, Italy and Poland. Across all countries, the incidence rate was highest for Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. Incidence estimates resulting from the pyramid reconstruction approach are adjusted for biases due to different surveillance systems and are therefore a better basis for international comparisons than reported data

Climate Extremes Promote Fatal Co-Infections during Canine Distemper Epidemics in African Lions

Extreme climatic conditions may alter historic host-pathogen relationships and synchronize the temporal and spatial convergence of multiple infectious agents, triggering epidemics with far greater mortality than those due to single pathogens. Here we present the first data to clearly illustrate how climate extremes can promote a complex interplay between epidemic and endemic pathogens that are normally tolerated in isolation, but with co-infection, result in catastrophic mortality. A 1994 canine distemper virus (CDV) epidemic in Serengeti lions (Panthera leo) coincided with the death of a third of the population, and a second high-mortality CDV epidemic struck the nearby Ngorongoro Crater lion population in 2001. The extent of adult mortalities was unusual for CDV and prompted an investigation into contributing factors. Serological analyses indicated that at least five “silent” CDV epidemics swept through the same two lion populations between 1976 and 2006 without clinical signs or measurable mortality, indicating that CDV was not necessarily fatal. Clinical and pathology findings suggested that hemoparsitism was a major contributing factor during fatal epidemics. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we measured the magnitude of hemoparasite infections in these populations over 22 years and demonstrated significantly higher levels of Babesia during the 1994 and 2001 epidemics. Babesia levels correlated with mortalities and extent of CDV exposure within prides. The common event preceding the two high mortality CDV outbreaks was extreme drought conditions with wide-spread herbivore die-offs, most notably of Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer). As a consequence of high tick numbers after the resumption of rains and heavy tick infestations of starving buffalo, the lions were infected by unusually high numbers of Babesia, infections that were magnified by the immunosuppressive effects of coincident CDV, leading to unprecedented mortality. Such mass mortality events may become increasingly common if climate extremes disrupt historic stable relationships between co-existing pathogens and their susceptible hosts

A saturated map of common genetic variants associated with human height

Common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are predicted to collectively explain 40-50% of phenotypic variation in human height, but identifying the specific variants and associated regions requires huge sample sizes(1). Here, using data from a genome-wide association study of 5.4 million individuals of diverse ancestries, we show that 12,111 independent SNPs that are significantly associated with height account for nearly all of the common SNP-based heritability. These SNPs are clustered within 7,209 non-overlapping genomic segments with a mean size of around 90 kb, covering about 21% of the genome. The density of independent associations varies across the genome and the regions of increased density are enriched for biologically relevant genes. In out-of-sample estimation and prediction, the 12,111 SNPs (or all SNPs in the HapMap 3 panel(2)) account for 40% (45%) of phenotypic variance in populations of European ancestry but only around 10-20% (14-24%) in populations of other ancestries. Effect sizes, associated regions and gene prioritization are similar across ancestries, indicating that reduced prediction accuracy is likely to be explained by linkage disequilibrium and differences in allele frequency within associated regions. Finally, we show that the relevant biological pathways are detectable with smaller sample sizes than are needed to implicate causal genes and variants. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive map of specific genomic regions that contain the vast majority of common height-associated variants. Although this map is saturated for populations of European ancestry, further research is needed to achieve equivalent saturation in other ancestries. A large genome-wide association study of more than 5 million individuals reveals that 12,111 single-nucleotide polymorphisms account for nearly all the heritability of height attributable to common genetic variants.Peer reviewe