Age-dependent seismic thickness and mechanical strength of the Australian lithosphere

We present constraints on the regional variations of the seismic and mechanical thickness of the Australian lithosphere. We infer the seismic thickness from a waveform tomographic model of S-wave speed, and as a proxy for the elastic thickness we use the wavelength at which the coherence of surface topography and Bouguer gravity drops below half of its long-wavelength maximum. Our results show that on scales <1000 km the relationship between the age of the crust and the thickness of the lithosphere is more complicated than longer-wavelength or global averages suggest. Recent geochemical and geodynamical evidence for small-scale secular variations of the composition and stability of continental cratons further illustrates the complexity of the age dependence of seismo-mechanical lithospheric properties on regional scales

Isolated deep earthquakes beneath the North Island of New Zealand

Seismicity shallows towards the south along the Tonga-Kermadec-Hikurangi margin, deep and intermediate seismicity being absent altogether in the South Island of New Zealand. Beneath the Taranaki region of the North Island the maximum depth of the main seismicity is 250 km, but very rare events occur directly below at 600 km. These could be associated with a detached slab or a vertical, aseismic continuation of the subducted Pacific Plate. Six small events that occurred in the 1990s were recorded extensively by digital instruments of the New Zealand National Network (NZNN) and temporary deployments. We relocate these events by a joint hypocentre determination (JHD) method and find their focal mechanisms using first motions and relative amplitudes of P and S arrivals. The earthquakes relocate to a remarkably uniform depth of 603 +/- 3 kmrelative error (+/- 10 km absolute error) in a line 30- km long orientated 40 NE, roughly parallel to the strike of the intermediate- depth seismicity. The only consistent component of the focal mechanisms is the tension axis: all lie close to horizontal and tend to align with the line of hypocentres. We interpret this deep seismic zone as a detached sliver of plate lying horizontally with the same orientation as the main subducted plate above. Volume change caused by a phase change controlled by the pressure at 600 km and temperature in the sliver produces a pattern of strain that places the sliver under tension along its lengt

Tomographic evidence for compositional heterogeneity deep in earth’s mantle

In the past decade, tomographic imaging has revealed that trajectories of mantle convection are more complex than expected from end-member models of unhindered whole mantle circulation or layered convection with an interface at 660 km depth. In the context of recently proposed mantle flow models, we discuss evidence for compositional heterogeneity in the deepest 1000 km of the mantle, and describe how this could survive in a system of thermochemical convection

A Semi-classical calculus of correlations

The method of passive imaging in seismology has been developped recently in order to image the earth crust from recordings of the seismic noise. This method is founded on the computation of correlations of the seismic noise. In this paper, we give an explicit formula for this correlation in the "semi-classical" regime. In order to do that, we define the power spectrum of a random field as the ensemble average of its Wigner measure, this allows phase-space computations: the pseudo-differential calculus and the ray theory. This way, we get a formula for the correlation of the seismic noise in the semi-classcial regime with a source noise which can be localized and non homogeneous. After that, we show how the use of surface guided waves allows to image the earth crust.Comment: To appear in a special issue "Imaging and Monitoring with Seismic Noise" of the series "Comptes Rendus G\'eosciences", from the French "Acad\'emie des sciences

Effects of relative plate motion on the deep structure and penetration depth of slabs below the Izu-Bonin and Mariana island arcs

An increasing number of seismological studies indicate that slabs of subducted lithosphere penetrate the Earth's lower mantle below some island arcs but are deflected, or, rather, laid down, in the transition zone below others. Recent numerical simulations of mantle flow also advocate a hybrid form of mantle convection, with intermittent layering. We present a multi-disciplinary analysis of slab morphology and mantle dynamics in which we account explicitly for the history of subduction below specific island arcs in an attempt to understand what controls lateral variations in slab morphology and penetration depth. Central in our discussion are the Izu-Bonin and Mariana subduction zones. We argue that the differences in the tectonic evolution of these subduction zones - in particular the amount and rate of trench migration - can explain why the slab of subducted oceanic lithosphere seems to be (at least temporarily) stagnant in the Earth's transition zone below the Izu-Bonin arc but penetrates into the lower mantle below the Mariana arc. We briefly speculate on the applicability of our model of the temporal and spatial evolution of slab morphology to other subduction zones. Although further investigation is necessary, our tentative model shows the potential for interpreting seismic images of slab structure by accounting for the plate-tectonic history of the subduction zones involved. We therefore hope that the ideas outlined here will stimulate and direct new research initiatives

New mantle convection model may reconcile conflicting evidence

Recently, a new model for mantle convection was proposed that may be more realistic than previous standard models. Exciting questions remain, of course, but we believe it can be used to reconcile otherwise conflicting evidence from different research fields and thus provide a new framework for further studies of convection

Extending shear-wave tomography for the lower mantle using S and SKS arrival-time data

Seismic tomography using S wave travel times faces the difficulty imposed by the interference between S and SKS phases near 83° epicentral distance, as the SKS phase overtakes the S waves in the mantle. If the cross-over is avoided completely by excluding S data beyond 82° then no resolution is available below 2200 km in the lower mantle. A partial solution is to try to pick up the S phase beyond the cross-over which improves coverage and resolution in depth. However, a much larger improvement can be made by following the first arrival with S character and including SKS information with S. Arrival times for both S and SKS phases and the event hypocentres have been taken from the reprocessing of data reported to international agencies. Each event has been relocated, including depth phase information, and later phases re-associated using the improved locations to provide a set of travel times whose variance is significantly reduced compared with the original data catalogues. S travel-time tomography including SKS information out to 105°, provides tomographic images with improved rendition of heterogeneity in the lower mantle. The three-dimensional models of SV wavespeed relative to the ak135 reference velocity model show a significant increase in heterogeneity at the base of the mantle which matches the behaviour seen in results derived from waveform inversion. For most of the mantle there is a considerable similarity between the patterns of heterogeneity in the S wave images and recent P wave tomographic results, but greater differences develop in the lowermost mantle. In the D″ region the SV wavespeed patterns also show some differences from recent SH wavespeed results which mostly correlate with regions of recognised structural complexity

Zoned mantle convection

We review the present state of our understanding of mantle convection with respect to geochemical and geophysical evidence and we suggest a model for mantle convection and its evolution over the Earth’s history that can reconcile this evidence. Wholemantle convection, even with material segregated within the D00 region just above the core{mantle boundary, is incompatible with the budget of argon and helium and with the inventory of heat sources required by the thermal evolution of the Earth. We show that the deep-mantle composition in lithophilic incompatible elements is inconsistent with the storage of old plates of ordinary oceanic lithosphere, i.e. with the concept of a plate graveyard. Isotopic inventories indicate that the deep-mantle composition is not correctly accounted for by continental debris, primitive material or subducted slabs containing normal oceanic crust. Seismological observations have begun to hint at compositional heterogeneity in the bottom 1000 km or so of the mantle, but there is no compelling evidence in support of an interface between deep and shallow mantle at mid-depth. We suggest that in a system of thermochemical convection, lithospheric plates subduct to a depth that depends|in a complicated fashion|on their composition and thermal structure. The thermal structure of the sinking plates is primarily determined by the direction and rate of convergence, the age of the lithosphere at the trench, the sinking rate and the variation of these parameters over time (i.e. platetectonic history) and is not the same for all subduction systems. The sinking rate in the mantle is determined by a combination of thermal (negative) and compositional buoyancy and as regards the latter we consider in particular the e¬ect of the loading of plates with basaltic plateaux produced by plume heads. Barren oceanic plates are relatively buoyant and may be recycled preferentially in the shallow mantle. Oceanic plateau-laden plates have a more pronounced negative buoyancy and can more easily founder to the very base of the mantle. Plateau segregation remains statistical and no sharp compositional interface is expected from the multiple fate of the plates. We show that the variable depth subduction of heavily laden plates can prevent full vertical mixing and preserve a vertical concentration gradient in the mantle. In addition, it can account for the preservation of scattered remnants of primitive material in the deep mantle and therefore for the Ar and 3He observations in oceanisland basalts