A comprehensive and multi-modal approach to studying neural and social outcomes after pediatric traumatic brain injury

Les traumatismes crânio-cérébraux (TCC) pédiatriques (c.-à-d., subis entre la naissance et 18 ans) constituent l’une des principales causes de décès et d’invalidité chez les enfants et les adolescents à travers le monde. Durant la période pédiatrique, les fonctions cognitives, affectives et sociales émergent progressivement, sous-tendues par la maturation cérébrale et l’établissement de réseaux neuronaux complexes. Un TCC subi durant l’enfance ou l’adolescence peut donc causer des dommages au cerveau immature et entrainer des difficultés dans ces domaines. La présentation clinique et les facteurs environnementaux sont très variables d’un enfant ou adolescent à l’autre, de sorte qu’il est difficile d’identifier qui aura un rétablissement optimal et qui aura des séquelles persistantes. Bien que la recherche ait identifié plusieurs facteurs qui contribuent au rétablissement post-TCC pédiatrique, notamment ceux liés à la blessure, à l’enfant et à l'environnement familial, les modèles de prédiction à ce jour ne sont pas toujours exhaustifs et ne tiennent pas compte des facteurs génétiques qui pourraient aider le pronostic. Parmi l’ensemble des séquelles liées au TCC, les problèmes sociaux (ex: participation sociale réduite, comportements sociaux inappropriés) sont parmi les plus néfastes et peuvent considérablement affecter la qualité de vie. Ces difficultés sociales peuvent résulter d'une perturbation des habiletés socio-cognitives sous-jacentes, mais les mécanismes exacts et les bases neuronales de tels problèmes sont encore inconnus. Notamment, les connaissances actuelles sur la manière dont le TCC pédiatrique affecte les connexions entre les régions cérébrales durant le développement demeurent limitées. Considérant ces lacunes relatives aux connaissances sur les TCC pédiatriques, cette thèse avait pour but 1) de déterminer les facteurs qui contribuent à la compétence sociale durant la petite enfance (c.-à-d., entre 18 et 60 mois), afin d’établir des pistes normatives pour comprendre l’émergence de problèmes sociaux suite à un TCC pédiatrique, 2) d’établir un modèle pronostique exhaustif du devenir (mesuré par la qualité de vie) après un TCC léger pédiatrique durant la petite enfance, et 3) d’examiner l'impact d’un TCC pédiatrique de sévérité modérée à sévère sur les réseaux cérébraux structurels et fonctionnels, notamment, ceux qui sous-tendent le fonctionnement social et cognitif. Afin d’atteindre ces objectifs, les données de deux cohortes longitudinales ont été analysées et présentées sous forme de quatre articles scientifiques. Le premier article visait à valider empiriquement le modèle ‘SOCIAL’ (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010) pour identifier les facteurs qui contribuent à la compétence sociale. Ce modèle théorique postule que des facteurs internes (liés à l'enfant), externes (liés à l’environnement) et cognitifs (fonctions attentionnelles et exécutives, communicatives et socio-cognitives) déterminent la compétence sociale de l’enfant. Les résultats d’un modèle de régression analysé chez un groupe d’enfants neurotypiques âgés de 18 à 60 mois indiquent que les facteurs internes, externes et cognitifs contribuent tous significativement à la compétence sociale de l’enfant. Les facteurs internes ainsi que les fonctions exécutives et socio-cognitives jouent un rôle particulièrement important. En effet, les enfants avec peu d’affect négatif, moins de difficultés exécutives, une meilleure communication non-verbale et une meilleure théorie de l'esprit ont un niveau de compétence sociale plus élevé. Le deuxième article visait à examiner les facteurs qui contribuent à la qualité de vie six et 18 mois après un TCC léger subi entre l’âge de 18 et 60 mois. Plusieurs prédicteurs potentiels provenant de quatre catégories de facteurs (biologie, environnement, blessure, comportement/cognition) ont été entrés dans un modèle de régression hiérarchique. Les résultats indiquent qu'un facteur génétique, le polymorphisme Val66Met du gène codant pour la protéine BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor), contribue positivement à la qualité de vie six mois après le TCC, alors qu’un an plus tard, un plus faible niveau de stress parental prédit une meilleure qualité de vie chez l’enfant. Le but du troisième article était d'étudier l’organisation fonctionnelle du réseau cérébral soutenant les habiletés sociales (le cerveau social) chez les enfants et les adolescents qui ont subi un TCC de sévérité modérée à sévère entre l’âge de neuf et 15 ans. Les participants ont complété un protocole d’acquisition d’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle au repos 24 mois après la blessure. Dans deux échantillons indépendants, les résultats indiquent une connectivité fonctionnelle altérée entre les régions cérébrales frontales et le gyrus fusiforme bilatéral dans le groupe TCC (connectivité positive) par rapport au groupe contrôle (connectivité négative). Le quatrième article a exploré les changements à long terme dans les réseaux de covariance structurelle du cerveau (c.-à-d., des régions cérébrales qui sont structurellement connectées) après un TCC pédiatrique de sévérité modérée à sévère subi entre neuf et 14 ans. L’objectif était d'étudier les différences de covariance structurelle au sein de trois réseaux cognitifs (réseau par défaut [DMN], réseau exécutif central [CEN], réseau de la salience [SN]) entre les enfants avec un TCC et les enfants sans blessure, trois et 24 mois post-TCC. Aucune différence de groupe n'a été trouvée après trois mois. Cependant, 24 mois après la blessure, le groupe TCC montrait une covariance structurelle réduite dans le DMN et le CEN par rapport au groupe contrôle. Dans leur ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent que des modèles exhaustifs incluant un large éventail de facteurs provenant de plusieurs sphères du fonctionnement sont essentiels afin de comprendre les éléments qui placent un enfant à risque de séquelles après un TCC pédiatrique. Ils mettent également en évidence l’importance de considérer parmi les facteurs de prédiction des marqueurs génétiques impliqués dans les mécanismes de neuroplasticité, et confirment l’influence de facteurs parentaux, notamment la santé mentale du parent, sur le rétablissement post-TCC chez les jeunes enfants. De plus, les résultats montrent qu’un TCC pédiatrique de sévérité modérée à sévère peut induire des altérations à long terme au niveau des réseaux neuronaux sous-jacents aux fonctions sociales et cognitives. Ces résultats permettent de mieux comprendre comment un TCC pédiatrique affecte les circuits cérébraux pendant le développement, ce qui contribue à clarifier les bases neuronales des problèmes sociaux post-TCC. Finalement, les trouvailles et réflexions issues de la thèse supportent l’idée de considérer plusieurs facteurs liés à la blessure, à l’enfant, et à l'environnement familial ainsi que des facteurs génétiques pour le diagnostic, le pronostic, et le rétablissement après un TCC subi durant l’enfance ou l’adolescence.Pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI; sustained between birth and 18 years) is one of the leading causes of death and disability among children and adolescents worldwide. During development, cognitive, affective and social functions emerge gradually, supported by rapid brain maturation and the establishment of complex neural networks. TBI sustained during childhood or adolescence can therefore cause damage to the immature brain and lead to difficulties in these domains. Clinical presentation and environmental factors vary greatly, rendering it difficult to identify who will recover well and who will experience persistent sequelae. Although research has identified several factors that contribute to recovery after pediatric TBI, including injury, child-related, and family-environmental variables, existing prediction models are not always comprehensive, and they do not account for genetic factors which could contribute to prognosis. Among all consequences associated with pediatric TBI, social problems (e.g., reduced social participation, maladaptive social behaviours) may be the most debilitating, and can considerably affect quality of life (QoL). These social difficulties can stem from a disruption of underlying socio-cognitive skills, but the exact mechanisms and neural bases of such problems are still unknown. In particular, current knowledge of how pediatric TBI affects connections between brain regions during development remains limited. Considering these gaps in the pediatric TBI literature, this thesis aimed to 1) determine factors that contribute to social competence in early childhood (i.e., between 18 and 60 months) in order to establish normative avenues for understanding the emergence of social problems following pediatric TBI, 2) establish a comprehensive prognostic model of outcome (assessed by QoL) after early mild TBI (mTBI), and 3) examine the impact of pediatric moderate to severe TBI on structural and functional brain networks, notably those underlying social and cognitive functioning. In order to meet these objectives, data from two longitudinal cohorts were analyzed and are presented in the form of four scientific articles. The first article aimed to empirically validate the “SOCIAL” model (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010) to identify factors that contribute to social competence. This theoretical model posits that internal (child-related), external (environment-related) and cognitive (attentional-executive, communicative and socio-cognitive) factors determine a child's social competence. The results of a regression model analyzed in a sample of neurotypical children aged 18 to 60 months indicate that internal, external and cognitive factors all contribute significantly to a child’s social competence. Internal variables, executive functions, and socio-cognitive factors play a particularly important role. Indeed, children with lower levels of negative affect, fewer executive difficulties, greater non-verbal communication and better theory of mind had better social competence. The objective of the second article was to examine which factors predict QoL six and 18 months following early mTBI sustained between 18 and 60 months of age. Several potential predictors from four domains (biology, environment, injury and behaviour/cognition) were entered into a hierarchical regression model. The results indicate that a genetic factor, the Val66Met polymorphism of the gene coding for the BDNF protein (Brain-Derived Neuroptrophic Factor), positively contributes to QoL six months after TBI, while a year later, lower parental distress predicts better child QoL. The aim of the third article was to study the functional organization of the brain network supporting social skills (the social brain) in children and adolescents who sustained moderate to severe TBI between nine and 15 years of age. Participants completed a protocol for the acquisition of functional resting magnetic resonance images 24 months post-injury. In two independent samples, the results indicate altered functional connectivity between frontal brain areas and bilateral fusiform gyrus in the TBI group (positive connectivity) compared to the control group (negative connectivity). The fourth article explored long-term changes in the brain’s structural covariance networks (i.e., brain regions that are structurally connected) following pediatric moderate to severe TBI sustained between nine and 14 years of age. The aim was to investigate differences in structural covariance within three core cognitive networks (i.e., default-mode [DMN], central executive [CEN], salience [SN]) between children with TBI and typically developing controls, three and 24 months post-injury. No group difference was found after three months. However, at 24 months post-injury, the TBI group showed reduced structural covariance within the DMN and the CEN compared to the control group. Taken together, these findings suggest that comprehensive models including a wide range of factors from several domains of functioning are essential for understanding the elements that put a child at risk for poor recovery after TBI. They also highlight the importance of considering, among potential predictors, genetic factors involved in mechanisms of neuroplasticity, and confirm the role of parental factors, in particular parent mental health for post-TBI recovery in young children. In addition, the results show that moderate-severe pediatric TBI can induce long-term alterations in neural networks underlying social and cognitive functions. These findings provide insights into how pediatric TBI affects brain circuits during development, and may help to elucidate the neural underpinnings of social problems after pediatric TBI. Finally, the findings and implications from the thesis support the notion that several injury, child-related, family-environmental as well as genetic factors should be considered for diagnosis, prognosis, and recovery after TBI sustained during childhood or adolescence

Brain structural correlates of multilinguism

Multilingualism is a modern phenomenon that is gaining more and more importance in our globalized world. An increasing number of studies have shown that multilingualism leads not only to cognitive advantages compared to monolingualism, but also changes the brain on a functional and structural level, underlying behavioural learning and performance. Structural changes have been observed in previous studies and have generally implied an increase in grey matter (GM) volume, GM density or white matter (WM) integrity for multilinguals compared to monolinguals. Previous studies are inconsistent in terms of the different factors examined and the obtained measurements and findings. The present study thus aimed at further investigating the structural correlates of multilingualism using nonparametric voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and a surface-based analysis in FreeSurfer..

Pediatric Moderate-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury and Gray Matter Structural Covariance Networks: A Preliminary Longitudinal Investigation

International audiencePediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is prevalent and can disrupt ongoing brain maturation. However, the long-term consequences of pediatric TBI on the brain’s network architecture are poorly understood. Structural covariance networks (SCN), based on anatomical correlations between brain regions, may provide important insights into brain topology following TBI. Changes in global SCN (default-mode network [DMN], central executive network [CEN], and salience network [SN]) were compared sub-acutely (<90 days) and in the long-term (approximately 12–24 months) after pediatric moderate-severe TBI (n = 16), and compared to typically developing children assessed concurrently (n = 15). Gray matter (GM) volumes from selected seeds (DMN: right angular gyrus [rAG], CEN: right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [rDLPFC], SN: right anterior insula) were extracted from T1-weighted images at both timepoints. No group differences were found sub-acutely; at the second timepoint, the TBI group showed significantly reduced structural covariance within the DMN seeded from the rAG and the (1) right middle frontal gyrus, (2) left superior frontal gyrus, and (3) left fusiform gyrus. Reduced structural covariance was also found within the CEN, that is, between the rDLPFC and the (1) calcarine sulcus, and (2) right occipital gyrus. In addition, injury severity was positively associated with GM volumes in the identified CEN regions. Over time, there were no significant changes in SCN in either group. The findings, albeit preliminary, suggest for the first time a long-term effect of pediatric TBI on SCN. SCN may be a complementary approach to characterize the global effect of TBI on the developing brain. Future work needs to further examine how disruptions of these networks relate to behavioral and cognitive difficulties

Altered resting‐state functional connectivity within the developing social brain after pediatric traumatic brain injury

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Regional Gray Matter Volumes Are Related to Concern About Falling in Older People: A Voxel-Based Morphometric Study

Background. Concern about falling is common in older people. Various related psychological constructs as well as poor balance and slow gait have been associated with decreased gray matter (GM) volume in old age. The current study investigates the association between concern about falling and voxel-wise GM volumes. Methods. A total of 281 community-dwelling older people aged 70–90 years underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging. Concern about falling was assessed using Falls Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I). For each participant, voxel-wise GM volumes were generated with voxel-based morphometry and regressed on raw FES-I scores (p < .05 family-wise error corrected on cluster level). Results. FES-I scores were negatively correlated with total brain volume (r = −.212; p ≤ .001), GM volume (r = −.210; p ≤ .001), and white matter volume (r = −.155; p ≤ .001). Voxel-based morphometry analysis revealed significant negative associations between FES-I and GM volumes of (i) left cerebellum and bilateral inferior occipital gyrus (voxels-in-cluster = 2,981; p < .001) and (ii) bilateral superior frontal gyrus and left supplementary motor area (voxels-in-cluster = 1,900; p = .004). Additional adjustment for vision and physical fall risk did not alter these associations. After adjustment for anxiety, only left cerebellum and bilateral inferior occipital gyrus remained negatively associated with FES-I scores (voxels-in-cluster = 2,426; p < .001). Adjustment for neuroticism removed all associations between FES-I and GM volumes. Conclusions. Our study findings show that concern about falling is negatively associated with brain volumes in areas important for emotional control and for motor control, executive functions and visual processing in a large sample of older men and women. Regression analyses suggest that these relationships were primarily accounted for by psychological factors (generalized anxiety and neuroticism) and not by physical fall risk or vision

Quality of life 6 and 18 months after mild traumatic brain injury in early childhood: An exploratory study of the role of genetic, environmental, injury, and child factors

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Behavioral-play familiarization for non-sedated magnetic resonance imaging in young children with mild traumatic brain injury

International audienceBackground: Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) sustained in early childhood affects the brain at a peak developmental period and may disrupt sensitive stages of skill acquisition, thereby compromising child functioning. However, due to the challenges of collecting non-sedated neuroimaging data in young children the consequences of mTBI on young children’s brains have not been systematically studied. In typically developing preschool children (TDC, 3-5 years), brief a behavioral-play familiarization provides an effective alternative to sedation for acquiring awake magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a time- and resource-efficient manner. To date, no study has applied such an approach for acquiring non-sedated MRI in preschool children with mTBI who may present with additional MRI acquisition challenges such as agitation or anxiety. Objective: The present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of a brief behavioral-play familiarization for acquiring non-sedated MRI for research purposes between young children with and without mTBI, and to identify factors associated with successful MRI acquisition. Materials and methods: Preschool children with mTBI (n=13) and TDC (n=24) underwent a 15-minute behavioral-play MRI familiarization followed by a 35-minute non-sedated MRI protocol. Success rate was compared between groups, MRI quality was assessed quantitatively, and factors predicting success were documented. Results: Among the 37 participants, 15 TDC (63%) and 10 mTBI (77%) reached the MRI acquisition success criteria (i.e., completing the two first sequences). The success rate was not significantly different between groups (p=.48; 95% CI [-0.36 14.08]; Cramer’s V=.15). The images acquired were of high-quality in 100% (for both groups) of the structural images, and 60% (for both groups) of the diffusion images. Factors associated with success included older child age (B=0.73, p=.007, exp(B)=3.11, 95% CI [1.36 7.08]) and fewer parental concerns (B=-1.56, p=.02, exp(B)=0.21, 95% CI [0.05 0.82]) about the MRI procedure. Conclusion: Using brief behavioral-play familiarization allows acquisition of high-quality non-sedated MRI in young children with mTBI with success rates comparable to those of non-injured peers

Hereditary myopathy with early respiratory failure: occurrence in various populations

Objective Several families with characteristic features of hereditary myopathy with early respiratory failure (HMERF) have remained without genetic cause. This international study was initiated to clarify epidemiology and the genetic underlying cause in these families, and to characterise the phenotype in our large cohort. Methods DNA samples of all currently known families with HMERF without molecular genetic cause were obtained from 12 families in seven different countries. Clinical, histopathological and muscle imaging data were collected and five biopsy samples made available for further immunohistochemical studies. Genotyping, exome sequencing and Sanger sequencing were used to identify and confirm sequence variations. Results All patients with clinical diagnosis of HMERF were genetically solved by five different titin mutations identified. One mutation has been reported while four are novel, all located exclusively in the FN3 119 domain (A150) of A-band titin. One of the new mutations showed semirecessive inheritance pattern with subclinical myopathy in the heterozygous parents. Typical clinical features were respiratory failure at mid-adulthood in an ambulant patient with very variable degree of muscle weakness. Cytoplasmic bodies were retrospectively observed in all muscle biopsy samples and these were reactive for myofibrillar proteins but not for titin. Conclusions We report an extensive collection of families with HMERF with five different mutations in exon 343 of TTN, which establishes this exon as the primary target for molecular diagnosis of HMERF. Our relatively large number of new families and mutations directly implies that HMERF is not extremely rare, not restricted to Northern Europe and should be considered in undetermined myogenic respiratory failure