The role of TLR9 and B cells in innate immune escape by hepatitis B virus

L'infection chronique par le virus de l’hépatite B (HBV) est un problème de santé majeur dans le monde et peut conduire à la cirrhose et à l’hépatocarcinome. Des réponses défectives des cellules T ont été démontrées, mais les événements précis qui peuvent contribuer à l'insuffisance des réponses des cellules B restent à déterminer. L'expansion et la différenciation optimales des cellules B reposent sur l'activité du récepteur Toll Like Receptor 9 (TLR9) qui détecte l'ADNdb et est exprimée chez l'homme principalement par les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes (pDC) et les cellules B. L'impact de HBV sur TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines reste à explorer. Dans cette étude, nous avons exploré les effets de HBV sur l’expression et les fonctions médiées par TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines en utilisant une lignée cellulaire de cellules B ainsi que des lymphocytes B primaires. De plus, on a corroboré nos résultats dans une cohorte de patients HBV chroniques. L'expression de TLR9 a été réduite chez les toutes les sous-populations de cellules B du sang périphérique, exposées au VHB. Les fonctions des cellules B médiées par TLR9 comme la prolifération et la sécrétion de cytokines pro-inflammatoires ont été abrogées en présence de HBV. Nos résultats montrent que l’antigène de surface HBsAg inhibe la phosphorylation du facteur de transcription CREB qui ne peut plus se lier sur son site CRE situé sur le promoteur TLR9 ce qui affecte la transcription de ce dernier. Enfin, nous avons corroboré nos résultats in vitro dans une cohorte de porteurs chroniques du HBV et constaté que l'expression et la fonction de TLR9 étaient significativement diminuées. Nos résultats révèlent le mécanisme qui induit une réponse immunosuppressive par HBV sur la fonction TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines, ce qui peut contribuer à la persistance de ce virus chez l'hôte et la complication de la phase chronique de la maladieChronic HBV infection is a major health problem worldwide. Ineffective T cell and antibody responses have been demonstrated, yet the precise events that may contribute to insufficient B cell responses remain to be determined. Optimal B cell function, expansion and differentiation rely on Toll Like Receptor 9 (TLR9) activity which senses dsDNA and is expressed in human mainly by plasmacytoid dendritic ( pDC) and B cells. The impact of HBV on TLR9 in human B cell subsets remains to be explored.Here, we investigated the effects of HBV on TLR9 function in human B cells. Both primary and B cell lines were used to analyze the effect of HBV on TLR9 expression and function. These results were corroborated in a cohort of chronically infected HBV patients. TLR9 expression was reduced in all peripheral blood B cells subsets exposed to HBV. B cell function mediated by TLR9, such as proliferation and pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion were abrogated in the presence of HBV. Our results show that the viral surface antigen HBsAg inhibited the phosphorylation of the transcription factor CREB which could no longer bind the CRE site located on the TLR9 promoter. Finally, we corroborated our in vitro findings in a cohort of chronic HBV carriers (CHB) and found that TLR9 expression and function were significantly suppressed.Our findings reveal the mechanism that induces an immunosuppressive response by HBV on TLR9 function in human B cells, which may contribute to HBV persistence in the hos

Rôle du TLR9 et des lymphocytes B dans l'échappement du virus de l'hépatite B à l'immunité innée

Chronic HBV infection is a major health problem worldwide. Ineffective T cell and antibody responses have been demonstrated, yet the precise events that may contribute to insufficient B cell responses remain to be determined. Optimal B cell function, expansion and differentiation rely on Toll Like Receptor 9 (TLR9) activity which senses dsDNA and is expressed in human mainly by plasmacytoid dendritic ( pDC) and B cells. The impact of HBV on TLR9 in human B cell subsets remains to be explored.Here, we investigated the effects of HBV on TLR9 function in human B cells. Both primary and B cell lines were used to analyze the effect of HBV on TLR9 expression and function. These results were corroborated in a cohort of chronically infected HBV patients. TLR9 expression was reduced in all peripheral blood B cells subsets exposed to HBV. B cell function mediated by TLR9, such as proliferation and pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion were abrogated in the presence of HBV. Our results show that the viral surface antigen HBsAg inhibited the phosphorylation of the transcription factor CREB which could no longer bind the CRE site located on the TLR9 promoter. Finally, we corroborated our in vitro findings in a cohort of chronic HBV carriers (CHB) and found that TLR9 expression and function were significantly suppressed.Our findings reveal the mechanism that induces an immunosuppressive response by HBV on TLR9 function in human B cells, which may contribute to HBV persistence in the hostL'infection chronique par le virus de l’hépatite B (HBV) est un problème de santé majeur dans le monde et peut conduire à la cirrhose et à l’hépatocarcinome. Des réponses défectives des cellules T ont été démontrées, mais les événements précis qui peuvent contribuer à l'insuffisance des réponses des cellules B restent à déterminer. L'expansion et la différenciation optimales des cellules B reposent sur l'activité du récepteur Toll Like Receptor 9 (TLR9) qui détecte l'ADNdb et est exprimée chez l'homme principalement par les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes (pDC) et les cellules B. L'impact de HBV sur TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines reste à explorer. Dans cette étude, nous avons exploré les effets de HBV sur l’expression et les fonctions médiées par TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines en utilisant une lignée cellulaire de cellules B ainsi que des lymphocytes B primaires. De plus, on a corroboré nos résultats dans une cohorte de patients HBV chroniques. L'expression de TLR9 a été réduite chez les toutes les sous-populations de cellules B du sang périphérique, exposées au VHB. Les fonctions des cellules B médiées par TLR9 comme la prolifération et la sécrétion de cytokines pro-inflammatoires ont été abrogées en présence de HBV. Nos résultats montrent que l’antigène de surface HBsAg inhibe la phosphorylation du facteur de transcription CREB qui ne peut plus se lier sur son site CRE situé sur le promoteur TLR9 ce qui affecte la transcription de ce dernier. Enfin, nous avons corroboré nos résultats in vitro dans une cohorte de porteurs chroniques du HBV et constaté que l'expression et la fonction de TLR9 étaient significativement diminuées. Nos résultats révèlent le mécanisme qui induit une réponse immunosuppressive par HBV sur la fonction TLR9 dans les cellules B humaines, ce qui peut contribuer à la persistance de ce virus chez l'hôte et la complication de la phase chronique de la maladi

HBV and the importance of TLR9 on B cell responses

Chronic HBV infection affects more than 240 million people worldwide and is a major risk factor for developing cancer in which 10–30% of cases will progress towards liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Infection outcome relies on the immune system maturity. Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a sensor of viral and bacterial DNA motifs and activates plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and B cells to generate effective immune responses against infection. B cells, especially CD38hi plasma cells play a major role in mediating humoral immune responses to clear HBV infection. Many studies have shown that TLR9 function is abrogated by HBV in pDCs. We aim to discuss the importance of B cell function in CHB patients and summarize concisely studies that describe the effect of HBV on TLR9 mediated B cell function. The effect of HBV on TLR9 activity in B cells should give insights into oncoviral immune escape strategies providing knowledge that will be essential to develop novel immunotherapeutic approaches

Perspectives on stopping nucleos(t)ide analogues therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B

International audienceLong-term treatment with nucleos(t)ide analogs (NAs) is the current first line therapy for patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB), recommended by most of the current guidelines. NAs prevent disease progression, liver failure, decrease the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and have favorable safety profiles. However, low rates of on-therapy functional cure (hepatitis B surface antigen [HBsAg] loss), which is regarded as the optimal end point, prevent many patients from stopping NA therapy with the need for a lifelong treatment. The higher likelihood of HBsAg loss associated with stopping as compared to continuing NAs has got a lot of attention recently. Recommendations regarding endpoints allowing for safely stopping NA therapy differ between international guidelines. Whereas in HBeAg-positive patients, HBeAg seroconversion with at least one year of consolidation therapy is an acceptable endpoint of treatment, the recommendations for HBeAg-negative ones differ. Some guidelines propose ≥3 years of HBV DNA undetectability to stop NA while others regard HBsAg loss as the only acceptable endpoint. Stopping NA can lead to substantial rates of virologic relapses and consequent ALT flares in some cases. Moreover, no reliable predictor(s) of post-NA relapses have been identified so far. Quantitative HBsAg is becoming an increasingly promising marker to predict safe NA cessation. On the other hand, investigating the role of the immune system in mediating sustained virologic responses after NA withdrawal is needed to suggest immunological biomarkers to safely stop NA. In this article, we will review relevant literature regarding NA stopping strategy and discuss promising viral and immunological biomarkers to predict antiviral responses and thus to help identify patients who are more likely to achieve HBsAg seroclearance

Peripheral natural killer cells in chronic hepatitis B patients display multiple molecular features of T cell exhaustion

Antiviral effectors such as natural killer (NK) cells have impaired functions in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. The molecular mechanism responsible for this dysfunction remains poorly characterised. We show that decreased cytokine production capacity of peripheral NK cells from CHB patients was associated with reduced expression of NKp30 and CD16, and defective mTOR pathway activity. Transcriptome analysis of patients NK cells revealed an enrichment for transcripts expressed in exhausted T cells suggesting that NK cell dysfunction and T cell exhaustion employ common mechanisms. In particular, the transcription factor TOX and several of its targets were over-expressed in NK cells of CHB patients. This signature was predicted to be dependent on the calcium-associated transcription factor NFAT. Stimulation of the calcium-dependent pathway recapitulated features of NK cells from CHB patients. Thus, deregulated calcium signalling could be a central event in both T cell exhaustion and NK cell dysfunction occurring during chronic infections

Mitochondrial stress in advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis associated with chronic hepatitis B, chronic hepatitis C, or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

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TLR9 re-expression in cancer cells extends the S-phase and stabilizes p16(INK4a) protein expression

International audienceToll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) recognizes bacterial, viral or cell damage-associated DNA, which initiates innate immune responses. We have previously shown that TLR9 expression is downregulated in several viral induced cancers including HPV16-induced cervical neoplasia. Findings supported that downregulation of TLR9 expression is involved in loss of anti-viral innate immunity allowing an efficient viral replication. Here we investigated the role of TLR9 in altering the growth of transformed epithelial cells. Re-introducing TLR9 under the control of an exogenous promoter in cervical or head and neck cancer patient-derived cells reduced cell proliferation, colony formation and prevented independent growth of cells under soft agar. Neither TLR3, 7, nor the TLR adapter protein MyD88 expression had any effect on cell proliferation, indicating that TLR9 has a unique role in controlling cell growth. The reduction of cell growth was not due to apoptosis or necrosis, yet we observed that cells expressing TLR9 were slower in entering the S-phase of the cell cycle. Microarray-based gene expression profiling analysis highlighted a strong interferon (IFN) signature in TLR9-expressing head and neck cancer cells, with an increase in IFN-type I and IL-29 expression (IFN-type III), yet neither IFN-type I nor IL-29 production was responsible for the block in cell growth. We observed that the protein half-life of p16(INK4a) was increased in TLR9-expressing cells. Taken together, these data show for the first time that TLR9 affects the cell cycle by regulating p16(INK4a) post-translational modifications and highlights the role of TLR9 in the events that lead to carcinogenesi

Characterization of the Inflammasome in Human Kupffer Cells in Response to Synthetic Agonists and Pathogens

International audienceThe liver is the largest gland in the human body and functions as an innate immune organ. Liver macrophages called Kupffer cells (KC) constitute the largest group of macrophages in the human body. Innate immune responses involving KC represent the first line of defense against pathogens in the liver. Human monocyte-derived macrophages have been used to characterize inflammasome responses that lead to the release of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and IL-18, but it has not yet been determined whether human KC contain functional inflammasomes. We show, to our knowledge for the first time, that KC express genes and proteins that make up several different inflammasome complexes. Moreover, activation of KC in response to the absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome led to the production of IL-1beta and IL-18, which activated IL-8 transcription and hepatic NK cell activity, respectively. Other inflammasome responses were also activated in response to selected bacteria and viruses. However, hepatitis B virus inhibited the AIM2 inflammasome by reducing the mRNA stability of IFN regulatory factor 7, which regulated AIM2 transcription. These data demonstrate the production of IL-1beta and IL-18 in KC, suggesting that KC contain functional inflammasomes that could be important players in the innate immune response following certain infections of the liver. We think our findings could potentially aid therapeutic approaches against chronic liver diseases that activate the inflammasom