Pristine forest landscapes as ecological references

Northern boreal forests that display no signs of forestry or agriculture in the past are often regarded as intact, pristine forests. Yet, humans have inhabited these environments for millennia and developed a variety of economic strategies for their subsistence. Generally, these forms of land use have been regarded as minor disturbances, and have thus frequently been neglected in ecological studies. Despite the increased recognition of the importance of past land use in other forest landscapes, the land use effects in northerly remote forests remain unclear. In this thesis the influence of human land use on forest structure, composition and biodiversity (dead wood and wood-inhabiting fungi) during the last 1 000 years was studied in three Scots pine forests in northern Sweden. For this purpose I used an interdisciplinary approach, combining field studies on present forest characteristics with long-term records such as archaeological remains and biological archives, and short-term records such as historical documents. My results show that long-term, low-intensity land use can substantially influence forest structure and composition and that land use legacies can reverberate through the ecosystem for many centuries. This implies that forests in remote and inaccessible areas with no recent management cannot be indiscriminately used to represent ‘pristine’ reference conditions. The results also show that to understand the overall magnitude and complexity of the relationship between humans and the land, all forms of human activities that may have occurred within the studied space should be considered. Furthermore, different patterns and gradients of past land use; varying in space, time and intensity across landscapes, create ‘layers’ of land use. The result is a matrix in which some areas have been heavily used for extensive periods of time whereas other parts may have practically escaped human exploitation. To detect and interpret anthropogenic disturbance in northern forest ecosystems a clear strategy for choosing relevant methods and applying them in the right order should be adopted. Then, possibly pristine forests can be evaluated as reference areas for addressing scientific research questions and conservation management

Using a spatially precise approach to analyse the occurrence of Usnea longissima in relation to present and past stand structure

To maintain biodiversity in managed forests, long-term trends in forest structure and ecological processes must be understood since these have a decisive influence on the distribution of many forest species, especially epiphytic lichens. To enhance the understanding of the complex occurrence of Usnea longissima Ash. at the stand level, a spatially precise investigation of present and past stand structure was made in an area in boreal Sweden. Field studies of present occurrence of U. longissima and present forest structure were complemented with dendrochronological analysis and interpretation of different historical sources. Stand structure at present was more or less similar all over the study area. No occurrence of forest fires during the last centuries and absence of forestry operations since the 1930s were most important for the occurrence of U. longissima. However, the distribution of the lichen within the study area could not be explained by present stand structure. Instead, several essential factors affecting the distribution of U. longissima could be related to past stand structure, especially the extent and intensity of previous logging operations and the subsequent stand development. Possibly, pre-industrial forest use and modest selective cuttings may occasionally have contributed to a maintained open forest structure. Evidently, U. longissima appears to be favoured by long-term stability in forest structure, including a somewhat open forest dominated by Picea abies, moderate regrowth of trees and absence of large-scale disturbances. The results indicate that stand history has an important influence on the distribution of epiphytic lichens such as U. longissima and should be considered to achieve a comprehensive management of boreal forests. Furthermore, the use of a spatially precise approach may elucidate many different factors and is practicable for interpreting forest history and long-term changes in habitat conditions.En förutsättning för att bedriva ett effektivt skogsbruk samtidigt som en hög biodiversitet bibehålls är fördjupad kunskap om långsiktiga förändringar av skogsstrukturen och ekologiska processer. Utbredningen av många skogslevande arter, i synnerhet epifytiska lavar, styrs till stor del av dessa faktorer. Syftet med denna studie var att öka kunskapen kring långskäggslavens (Usnea longissima Ash.) komplicerade utbredning på beståndsnivå i norra Sverige. Förutom en fältstudie av långskäggsförekomst och nuvarande beståndsstruktur användes två olika skogshistoriska metoder, närmare bestämt dendrokronologi och tolkning av olika historiska dokument. Studieområdet hade inte påverkats av skogsbruk sedan 1930- talet och några tecken på skogsbrand under de senaste seklen återfanns ej. Dessa faktorer är avgörande för förekomsten av U. longissima i studieområdet. När det gäller utbredningen av U. longissima i området kunde denna relateras till beståndshistoriken, framför allt omfattningen av tidigare huggningar samt efterföljande beståndsutveckling. Möjligen kan förindustriellt agrart bruk av skogen samt småskalig plockhuggning i vissa fall ha bidragit till en bibehållen öppen skogsstruktur. Långskäggslaven tycks således gynnas av en beständig och något öppen skogsstruktur med dominans av gran (Picea abies L. Karst), långsam tillväxt samt frånvaro av storskaliga störningar. Resultat visar att beståndshistorik har stor inverkan på förekomsten av epifytiska lavar såsom långskäggslav och bör därför beaktas vid skötseln av våra boreala skogar. Djupgående studier på små områden hjälper till att belysa många olika faktorer samt är användbara för tolkning av skogshistoria och långsiktiga förändringar av olika habitat

Quantifying Sami Settlement and Movement Patterns in Northern Sweden 1700–1900

The indigenous Sami people of northernmost Europe have developed unique adaptations that enable them to cope with harsh climate and subsist in low-productivity ecosystems. These adaptations have been shaped by both internal factors, such as demographic and traditional land-use systems, and external factors, such as colonization and national legislation. In this paper we interpret the quantitative impacts of land use by reindeer herders in a subarctic forest landscape in northern Sweden during the 18th and 19th centuries. We used archival sources (cameral and judicial documents and church records) together with environmental data to reconstruct past changes in population size and the spatial configuration of traditional Sami lands, which the Swedish state accepted and recognized as taxation units for several centuries up to the 19th century. The taxation lands encompassed several hundred square kilometres and featured distinct proportions of different vegetation types. We propose that these taxation lands were originally established so that each provided sufficient resources to support the subsistence of a Sami family, incorporating pastures for small-scale reindeer herding and opportunities for hunting and fishing within its borders. However, there were substantial differences in the resources they provided. Estimates of population density indicate that they may have been able to support 0.04–0.06 persons per km2. Unlike many other indigenous groups around the globe, the Sami interacted with the state and claimed their rights in court proceedings and were thus able to maintain strong recognition of their land tenure by the Swedish state until the late 19th century.Key words: northern Sweden, forest history, archaeology, archival sources, Sami, population changes, reindeer pastoralism, taxation lands, mountain birch, Scots pineLe peuple indigène des Samis de l’Extrême-Nord de l’Europe s’est adapté de manières uniques afin de faire face au climat difficile et de subsister dans des écosystèmes à faible productivité. Ces adaptations ont été façonnées à la fois par des facteurs internes tels que la composition démographique et les systèmes traditionnels d’utilisation de la terre, ainsi que par des facteurs externes tels que la colonisation et l’adoption de lois nationales. Dans le présent document, nous interprétons les incidences quantitatives de l’utilisation des terres par les pasteurs de rennes dans un paysage forestier subarctique situé dans le nord de la Suède aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles. Nous nous sommes appuyés sur des sources archivées (documents caméraux et judiciaires ainsi que dossiers d’église) de même que sur des données environnementales pour identifier les anciennes variations de population et la configuration spatiale des terres traditionnelles des Samis, que l’État de la Suède a accepté et reconnu en tant que taxeurs pendant plusieurs siècles jusqu’au XIXe siècle. Les terres faisant l’objet d’une taxation s’étendaient sur plusieurs centaines de kilomètres carrés et englobaient des proportions distinctes de types de végétation différents. Nous laissons entendre que ces terres de taxation avaient été établies à l’origine pour que chaque terre fournisse des ressources suffisantes pour favoriser la subsistance d’une famille de Samis, intégrant ainsi des pâturages pour l’élevage des rennes à petite échelle et des possibilités de chasse et pêche à l’intérieur de ses frontières. Cependant, les ressources offertes par chaque terre variaient beaucoup d’une terre à l’autre. Les estimations en matière de densité de population indiquent que les terres auraient pu faire vivre de 0,04 à 0,06 personne par kilomètre carré. Contrairement à bien d’autres groupes indigènes du monde entier, les Samis ont négocié avec l’État et réclamé leurs droits devant le tribunal, ce qui leur a valu de maintenir une bonne reconnaissance de leur occupation foncière par l’État suédois jusque vers la fin du XIXe siècle

Continuity forest or second-generation forest? Historic aerial photos provide evidence of early clear-cutting in northern Sweden

Modern forestry, which mainly consists of clear-cutting, is one of the most important factors influencing today's boreal forests. In Sweden, the breaking point for modern forestry is generally considered to be around 1950. Recently, our common knowledge of the implementation of clear-cutting in Sweden has increased, and new research indicates that clear-cutting systems were already applied before the 1950s. In this case study, we used aerial photographs from the 1940s to analyze the extent of contemporaneous clear-cuts and even-aged young forests in an area in northern Sweden. Our results show that almost 40% of the study area had already been clear-cut by the end of the 1940s, but also that clear-cutting had been applied to 10% of the forest land in the early 1900s. This implies that the historical development of forestry in northern Sweden is more complex than previously thought, and that certain proportions of the forest land were already second-generation forests in the 1950s. Our results have implications for the use of concepts such as "continuity forest", suggesting that this concept should employ a time frame of at least 100 years

Culturally modified trees and forest structure at a Kawesqar ancient settlement at Rio Batchelor, western Patagonia

Indigenous land use occurring on temporal scales over centuries or millennia shapes forests in specific ways and influences the dynamics of forest ecosystems. It is challenging to study such land use, but analysis of "culturally modified trees" (CMTs) can give precise spatial and temporal information on past land use by indigenous people. The aim of this study was to increase our knowledge of indigenous use of land and resources in Nothofagus forests by identifying CMTs and analyzing the forest structure dynamics in an ancient Kawesqar settlement site in western Patagonia. Our results show that there are CMTs at Rio Batchelor and that the forest structure varies significantly within the site, indicating that Kawesqar people altered the forest by extracting various resources. We conclude that CMT studies have great potential in Nothofagus forests in southernmost America, but also face specific challenges due to environmental conditions and lack of corroborating historical information

Mindfulness: Relations to attention regulation, decentering and psychological well-being

The current research project consists of three separate studies. The general aim of this project was to contribute to previous mindfulness research by exploring fundamental aspects of mindfulness in an effort to increase the understanding of mindfulness as a construct as well as its mechanisms. The purpose of the study I was to investigate the relation between mindfulness and sustained and executive attention by comparing Buddhist and Western mindfulness meditators (n = 47) and non-meditators (n = 45) in performance on computerized attention. The main purpose of study II was to compare these meditators and non-meditators on self-reported mindfulness, and also to investigate whether facets of mindfulness mediate the relation between meditation experience and psychological well-being. Study III aimed at investigating the unique effects of mindfulness practice as well as the proposed mindfulness mechanism; decentering. A short-term mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) (n = 46) was compared with relaxation training (n = 40) and a waiting-list group (n = 40) on a battery of tests - executive attention, self-reported mindfulness, decentering, psychological well-being, anxiety, depression, and coping styles – in 126 employees with no prior meditation experience. The results showed no significant differences between meditators and non-meditators either in sustained or executive attention. Meditators rated themselves higher than non-meditators on four of the five facets of mindfulness. The multiple mediation analysis showed that the five mindfulness facets mediated the relationship between meditation experience and psychological well-being but no single facet contributed significantly. Simple mediation analyses indicated, however, that Non-React was the primary mediator. No unique mindfulness effects were found since there were no differences between mindfulness and relaxation in any of the variables. However, the mindfulness group scored higher than the waiting-list group on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire total scale and psychological wellbeing. Meditators may have an increased awareness of internal processes and the ability to quickly attend to them, but this type of refined attentional ability does not seem to be related to performance on attention tests requiring quick responses to external targets. It may be concluded that effects on attention regulation are of less importance compared to other beneficial psychological and physiological health outcomes due to mindfulness meditation. Mediation analyses supported (i) the notion that meditation experience is related to increased mindfulness, which in turn is associated with improved psychological well-being, and (ii) the idea that increases in mindfulness lead to increased decentering abilities which in turn leads to improved psychological well-being. Possible explanations for the absence of unique group differences between mindfulness and relaxation are that the length of the intervention was too short and the sessions too few, similarities between body exercises in MBI and relaxation, and the lack of group differences on decentering. Investigating unique mindfulness effects to distinguish mindfulness effects from relaxation should be prioritized in future studies. The promising theory of mechanisms proposed in the Buddhist Psychological Model (BPM) needs to be empirically evaluated. MBI-related changes in selfperceptions, value systems, and ethical aspects may play a more important role for improved psychological health than what has previously been recognized. Other Buddhist practices such as loving-kindness meditation and compassion meditation also need to be examined. Finally, an in-depth dialogue between Western researchers, expert meditators, and Buddhist theoreticians may be increasingly important for mindfulness research to advance

New insights into estimating the age of old Scots pine from increment cores with stem rot

Trunk inner rot is a common phenomenon in some old-growth pine dominated forests, making it impossible to determine tree age by counting annual rings. We compared the efficiency of five methods to estimate the age of hollow pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.). Our main aims were to select the best-performing method and to test whether the age of the tree or the proportion of rot influences the accuracy of estimation. We used full increment cores (reaching the pith or within 1 cm of it) from 100 trees (54-562 years old) collected in northern Sweden and simulated rotten centres of three different sizes in order to test the methods. The lowest error rates were obtained when less than a third of the sample was missing (down to 5.0 % error rate), and by using a method based on the growth pattern of a set of healthy trees. Using linear extrapolation of the mean radial growth led to large overestimates (up to three times the number of absent rings) with error rates up to 27.3 %. We also found that the performance of all methods was reduced in cores from older trees. Our main conclusion is that non-linear methods should be preferred for age estimation of hollow pines. We also argue that more precision in the age estimation could be gained already in the field by collecting multiple cores from rotten trees or by developing alternative coring methods

A case study on quality improvement

Domain Driven Design (DDD) är en filosofi som kan användas ihop med olika systemutvecklingsmetoder. Det centrala i DDD är problemområdet. Förutom att problemområdet skall vara i fokus så är DDD uppbyggt på en samling rekommenderade tillvägagångssätt som tillsammans gör det lättare att lyckas med ett systemutvecklingsprojekt. Dessa tillvägagångssätt skall förutom att göra det lättare att lyckas med projektet även öka kvaliteten på resultatet. Syftet med studien var att undersöka om kvaliteten på mjukvara kan förbättras genom att använda DDD. Det empiriska material som användes i studien samlades in genom intervjuer med två olika respondenter. Respondenterna som valdes hade god erfarenhet och kunskap om ämnesområdet studien berör. Då endast en produkt vid ett företag studerades skall studien betraktas som en fallstudie. Resultatet som framkom vid analys av det teoretiska och empiriska materialet visade att DDD på flera sätt kan hjälpa till att öka kvalitetsgraden på mjukvara. Slutsatsen av studien blev att DDD kan hjälpa till att öka kvalitetsgraden på mjukvara.Uppsatsnivå:

Biodiversity offsets implementation in Sweden – a practitioner’s view

Implementation of biodiversity offsets is increasingly being applied in Sweden - primary as an instrument to mitigate the rapid loss of natural habitats due to various exploitation projects. Being one of the leading practitioners in biodiversity offsetting in Sweden Enetjärn Natur draw upon several years of practical experiences and knowledge gain in the design and development of such projects. Here we present crucial aspects that need to be taken into account when implementing biodiversity offsetting during the start-up, design, management and follow-up phases. Focus is on experiences from various biodiversity-offset projects carried out in Sweden during the last 10 years. Among the aspects considered are; judicial conformation, the need rigid evaluation/calculation models, management tools including restoration, and well-developed, research-based follow-up programs. Knowledge sharing and close contact between different stakeholders, including practitioners and researchers, form the basis for successful implementation of biodiversity offsetting - considering the complexity and the variety of conditions under which they develop.peerReviewe