Blueprint For Whale Conservation: Implementing The Marine Mammal Protection Act

Over its twenty-four year history, the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA) has had both its successes and its failures, yet it remains one of the cornerstones of marine conservation and one of the most effective mechanisms to protect marine mammals. Marine mammals now face threats, however, that are global in scope and involve humans and our shared use of the marine environment. Diminishing marine resources and diminishing federal funds force fishers and conservationists to develop creative initiatives to conserve marine mammals, marine habitats, and species diversity, while still promoting economically viable fisheries. Marine mammals often compete with humans for the same fish, or occur in areas where fishing is conducted. As a result they are sometimes incidentally taken during commercial fishing operations. The regulation of such operations to protect marine mammals has become a critical, and often volatile, issue. Since its enactment, the MMPA has prohibited the take of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing unless authorized by an incidental take permit or a small take exemption. The problem of the incidental take of marine mammals in commercial fishing reached a climax in 1988, when it became apparent that the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) was unable to make the necessary determinations that would enable it to authorize takes for affected marine mammal stocks. The resulting Kokechik Fishermen\u27s Association v. Secretary of Commerce court decision uncovered the permit-issuing system\u27s inherent flaw: the fact that the information upon which permit-issuing decisions were being made was not sufficient to be certain that incidental takes would not harm marine mammal stocks. This discovery brought together representatives of the environmental community and the fishing industry in 1988 to find a way to enable fishers to fish, while minimizing the impact of their activities on marine mammals. These representatives agreed on a series of points which they subsequently presented to the Senate Commerce Committee and the House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee. Based on these points, Congress passed the MMPA Amendments of 1988, which established an information gathering program and an Interim Exemption Program for Commercial Fisheries. After analysis of the Interim Exemption Program and after NMFS proposed a long-term regime to authorize incidental takes in commercial fisheries in 1993, the environmental community and the fishing industry met again. They developed amendments that resulted in sweeping changes to the MMPA\u27s provisions governing the incidental take of marine mammals in commercial fisheries, which were adopted by Congress in 1994. Today, representatives of the fishing industry, the conservation community, and federal and state agencies continue their work through incidental take reduction teams to develop measures reducing the incidental mortality and serious injury of marine mammals in commercial fisheries. Part II of this Article explores the history of the MMPA and explains why this type of cooperative approach promises to be effective for marine mammal conservation. Part III examines the benefits of developing conservation strategies using facilitated negotiations versus traditional adversarial tactics, and how these strategies expedite efforts to reduce or eliminate marine mammal mortality in commercial fisheries. Part IV provides an update on the status of the implementation of the 1994 Amendments to the MMPA, and Part V evaluates the effectiveness of using take reduction teams to develop management strategies to reduce marine mammal incidental mortality and serious injury. Finally, this Article concludes by identifying areas of potential conflict between the fishing industry and the conservation community in the next reauthorization of the MMPA

At Point Blank Range: The Genesis And Implementation Of Lethal Removal Provisions Under The Marine Mammal Protection Act

In 1994, Congress reauthorized the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). As part of the reauthorization, a coalition of environmental organizations, animal welfare groups, commercial fishing industry representatives, and Alaska Natives, assisted by a professional facilitator, developed a negotiated proposal to govern the incidental take of marine mammals during commercial fishing operations. A subgroup of the negotiating parties also met to address the issue of pinniped predation on declining salmon stocks. This subgroup proposed to Congress a multiphased process to evaluate whether all feasible methods of nonlethal deterrence had been tried, and whether the target marine mammals were responsible for the fish declines. This proposal also called for a task force to consult with the Secretary of Commerce about seals and sea lions considered nuisance animals because of their predation of steelhead and salmon, species prized by commercial and recreational fishermen, at the Ballard Locks in Seattle and in the Columbia River. Proponents of the legislation argued that the predation had contributed to declines in several species of fish. Based on the outcome of the consultation and the evaluation by the task force, the proposal created a process whereby the Secretary of Commerce may authorize a state to lethally remove pinnipeds that prey on endangered salmonid stocks, provided the nuisance pinniped(s) is identified as habitually exhibiting dangerous or damaging behavior that could not be deterred by other means. On November 8, 1993, Senators Kerry, Stevens, and Packwood introduced Senate Bill 1636 to reauthorize the MMPA. On November 9, the Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee amended the bill to include this nuisance pinniped proposal. Ultimately this proposal, which provides a process whereby states and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) can address interactions between pinnipeds and declining salmonid stocks, was codified at section 120 of the IMPA. On June 30, 1994, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) requested authority under section 120 to lethally remove problem California sea lions from the Ballard Locks in Seattle, Washington. Evidence indicated that the nonlethal methods used -underwater firecrackers, chaser boats, acoustic harassment devices, taste aversion conditioning, experimental barrier nets, trapping and relocating sea lions to the outer coast of Washington and to their breeding grounds off southern California, and use of acoustic deterrence devices - were not entirely successful in eliminating sea lion predation. On January 6, 1995 (less than six months later), NMFS provided WDFW with a three-year conditioned authority to lethally remove fifteen California sea lions in order to protect steelhead salmon from sea lion predation at the Ballard Locks. The hearings to reauthorize the MMPA began in 1999, with a goal to amend the Act by the end of 2000. The 1998 stock assessments indicate that California sea lion populations on the west coast have increased at a rate of more than five percent annually since the mid-1970s; the present population is now estimated at 161,000 to 181,000. These increases foreshadow the difficult issues for this upcoming reauthorization, including pressure to weaken both the lethal and the nonlethal take provisions of the Act

Bi-Directional Learning: Identifying Contaminants on the Yurok Indian Reservation.

The Yurok Tribe partnered with the University of California Davis (UC Davis) Superfund Research Program to identify and address contaminants in the Klamath watershed that may be impairing human and ecosystem health. We draw on a community-based participatory research approach that begins with community concerns, includes shared duties across the research process, and collaborative interpretation of results. A primary challenge facing University and Tribal researchers on this project is the complexity of the relationship(s) between the identity and concentrations of contaminants and the diversity of illnesses plaguing community members. The framework of bi-directional learning includes Yurok-led river sampling, Yurok traditional ecological knowledge, University lab analysis, and collaborative interpretation of results. Yurok staff and community members share their unique exposure pathways, their knowledge of the landscape, their past scientific studies, and the history of landscape management, and University researchers use both specific and broad scope chemical screening techniques to attempt to identify contaminants and their sources. Both university and tribal knowledge are crucial to understanding the relationship between human and environmental health. This paper examines University and Tribal researchers' shared learning, progress, and challenges at the end of the second year of a five-year Superfund Research Program (SRP) grant to identify and remediate toxins in the lower Klamath River watershed. Our water quality research is framed within a larger question of how to best build university-Tribal collaboration to address contamination and associated human health impacts

Bisphosphonates and risk of atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis

Abstract Introduction Bisphosphonates are the most commonly used drugs for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Although a recent FDA review of the results of clinical trials reported no clear link between bisphosphonates and serious or non-serious atrial fibrillation (AF), some epidemiologic studies have suggested an association between AF and bisphosphonates. Methods We conducted a meta-analysis of non-experimental studies to evaluate the risk of AF associated with bisphosphonates. Studies were identified by searching MEDLINE and EMBASE using a combination of the Medical Subject Headings and keywords. Our search was limited to English language articles. The pooled estimates of odds ratios (OR) as a measure of effect size were calculated using a random effects model. Results Seven eligible studies with 266,761 patients were identified: three cohort, three case-control, and one self-controlled case series. Bisphosphonate exposure was not associated with an increased risk of AF [pooled multivariate OR 1.04, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.92-1.16] after adjusting for known risk factors. Moderate heterogeneity was noted (I-squared score = 62.8%). Stratified analyses by study design, cohort versus case-control studies, yielded similar results. Egger's and Begg's tests did not suggest an evidence of publication bias (P = 0.90, 1.00 respectively). No clear asymmetry was observed in the funnel plot analysis. Few studies compared risk between bisphosphonates or by dosing. Conclusions Our study did not find an association between bisphosphonate exposure and AF. This finding is consistent with the FDA's statement

Preservation of tetherin and CD4 counter-activities in circulating Vpu alleles despite extensive sequence variation within HIV-1 infected individuals.

The HIV-1 Vpu protein is expressed from a bi-cistronic message late in the viral life cycle. It functions during viral assembly to maximise infectious virus release by targeting CD4 for proteosomal degradation and counteracting the antiviral protein tetherin (BST2/CD317). Single genome analysis of vpu repertoires throughout infection in 14 individuals infected with HIV-1 clade B revealed extensive amino acid diversity of the Vpu protein. For the most part, this variation in Vpu increases over the course of infection and is associated with predicted epitopes of the individual's MHC class I haplotype, suggesting CD8+ T cell pressure is the major driver of Vpu sequence diversity within the host. Despite this variability, the Vpu functions of targeting CD4 and counteracting both physical virus restriction and NF-κB activation by tetherin are rigorously maintained throughout HIV-1 infection. Only a minority of circulating alleles bear lesions in either of these activities at any given time, suggesting functional Vpu mutants are heavily selected against even at later stages of infection. Comparison of Vpu proteins defective for one or several functions reveals novel determinants of CD4 downregulation, counteraction of tetherin restriction, and inhibition of NF-κB signalling. These data affirm the importance of Vpu functions for in vivo persistence of HIV-1 within infected individuals, not simply for transmission, and highlight its potential as a target for antiviral therapy

Fluid-loading solutions and plasma volume: Astro-ade and salt tablets with water

Fluid loading with salt and water is a countermeasure used after space flight to restore body fluids. However, gastrointestinal side effects have been frequently reported in persons taking similar quantities of salt and water in ground-based studies. The effectiveness of the Shuttle fluid-loading countermeasure (8 gms salt, 0.97 liters of water) was compared to Astro-ade (an isotonic electrolyte solution), to maintain plasma volume (PV) during 4.5 hrs of resting fluid restriction. Three groups of healthy men (n=6) were studied: a Control Group (no drinking), an Astro-ade Group, and a Salt Tablet Group. Changes in PV after drinking were calculated from hematocrit and hemoglobin values. Both the Salt Tablet and Astro-ade Groups maintained PV at 2-3 hours after ingestion compared to the Control Group, which had a 6 percent decline. Side effects (thirst, stomach cramping, and diarrhea) were noted in at least one subject in both the Astro-ade and Salt Tablet Groups. Nausea and vomiting were reported in one subject in the Salt Tablet Group. It was concluded that Astro-ade may be offered as an alternate fluid-loading countermeasure but further work is needed to develop a solution that is more palatable and has fewer side effects

Proopiomelanocortin Neurons in Nucleus Tractus Solitarius Are Activated by Visceral Afferents: Regulation by Cholecystokinin and Opioids

The nucleustractus solitarius (NTS) receives dense terminations from cranial visceral afferents, including those from the gastrointestinal (GI) system. Although the NTS integrates peripheral satiety signals and relays this signal to central feeding centers, little is known about which NTS neurons are involved or what mechanisms are responsible. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are good candidates for GI integration, because disruption of the POMC gene leads to severe obesity and hyperphagia. Here, we used POMC– enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) transgenic mice to identify NTS POMC neurons. Intraperitoneal administration of cholecystokinin (CCK) induced c-fos gene expression in NTS POMC–EGFP neurons, suggesting that they are activated by afferents stimulated by the satiety hormone. We tested the synaptic relationship of these neurons to visceral afferents and their modulation by CCK and opioids using patch recordings in horizontal brain slices. Electrical activation of the solitary tract (ST) evoked EPSCs in NTS POMC–EGFP neurons. The invariant latencies, low failure rates, and substantial paired-pulse depression of the ST-evoked EPSCs indicate that NTS POMC–EGFP neurons are second-order neurons directly contacted by afferent terminals. The EPSCs were blocked by the glutamate antagonist 2,3- dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfonyl-benzo[f]quinoxaline. CCK increased the amplitude of the ST-stimulated EPSCs and the frequency of miniature EPSCs, effects attenuated by the CCK1 receptor antagonist lorglumide. In contrast, the orexigenic opioid agonists [D-Ala(2), N-Me-Phe(4), Gly-ol(5)]-enkephalin and met-enkephalin inhibited both ST-stimulated EPSCs and the frequency of miniature EPSCs. These findings identify a potential satiety pathway in which visceral afferents directly activate NTS POMC–EGFP neurons with excitatory inputs that are appropriately modulated by appetite regulators

Gross Motor Development, Movement Abnormalities, and Early Identification of Autism

Gross motor development (supine, prone, rolling, sitting, crawling, walking) and movement abnormalities were examined in the home videos of infants later diagnosed with autism (regression and no regression subgroups), developmental delays (DD), or typical development. Group differences in maturity were found for walking, prone, and supine, with the DD and Autism-No Regression groups both showing later developing motor maturity than typical children. The only statistically significant differences in movement abnormalities were in the DD group; the two autism groups did not differ from the typical group in rates of movement abnormalities or lack of protective responses. These findings do not replicate previous investigations suggesting that early motor abnormalities seen on home video can assist in early identification of autism

Designing Year 12 strategy training in listening and writing: from theory to practice

This article outlines some of the key issues involved in developing a programme of strategy training for learners of French, in listening and in writing. It highlights the theoretical perspectives and research findings on listening and writing that informed the selection of strategies to teach learners and thence the development of appropriate materials. Examples of these materials are given as well as advice regarding their use. The article concludes with suggestions for how strategy training might be incorporated into teachers' own work with learners

Conservation Tools: The Next Generation of Engineering--Biology Collaborations

The recent increase in public and academic interest in preserving biodiversity has led to the growth of the field of conservation technology. This field involves designing and constructing tools that utilize technology to aid in the conservation of wildlife. In this article, we will use case studies to demonstrate the importance of designing conservation tools with human-wildlife interaction in mind and provide a framework for creating successful tools. These case studies include a range of complexities, from simple cat collars to machine learning and game theory methodologies. Our goal is to introduce and inform current and future researchers in the field of conservation technology and provide references for educating the next generation of conservation technologists. Conservation technology not only has the potential to benefit biodiversity but also has broader impacts on fields such as sustainability and environmental protection. By using innovative technologies to address conservation challenges, we can find more effective and efficient solutions to protect and preserve our planet's resources