The EU legalframework on green bonds

Η παρούσα μελέτη περιέχει μια συνοπτική και ταυτόχρονα ολοκληρωμένη και λεπτομερή επισκόπηση του ευρωπαϊκού νομικού πλαισίου (ΕΕ) για τα πράσινα ομόλογα. Είναι δομημένη σε δύο τμήματα. Η ενότητα Α’ υπό τον τίτλο «Η Πράσινη Αγορά Ομολόγων» αποτελείται από μια επισκόπηση του τρόπου δημιουργίας της αγοράς πράσινων ομολόγων και της ταχείας ανάπτυξής της, ενώ καθορίζει την έννοια των πράσινων ομολόγων και απεικονίζει τους διάφορους τύπους πράσινων ομολόγων. Η πρώτη ενότητα παρουσιάζει, επίσης, τα δύο πιο γνωστά πρότυπα που βασίζονται στην αγορά, την αρχή των πράσινων ομολόγων και το πρότυπο ομολόγων για το κλίμα. Η Ενότητα Β' επικεντρώνεται στο ευρωπαϊκό νομικό πλαίσιο για τα πράσινα ομόλογα και, αντίστοιχα, στις νομικές πράξεις που έχουν εκδοθεί ή προταθεί, οι οποίες αποσκοπούν στην ενίσχυση της «πράσινης χρηματοδότησης» και στην προώθηση της βιώσιμης ανάπτυξης στην ΕΕ. Ως επί το πλείστον, η Ενότητα Β' εξετάζει λεπτομερώς την πρόταση κανονισμού για τα πράσινα ομόλογα, με επίκεντρο τις σημαντικότερες διατάξεις. Τέλος, η Ενότητα Β’ παρουσιάζει την πρόσφατη πρωτοβουλία της Ευρωπαϊκής Επιτροπής για την έκδοση του πρώτου ευρωπαϊκού πράσινου ομολόγου, με τίτλο «NextGenerationEU».The present study contains a concise and concurrently a comprehensive and detailed overview of the European (EU) Legal Framework on Green Bonds. It is structured in two Sections. Section A titled “The Green Bond Market” consists of an overview of how the green bond market created and its rapid development, while it defines the concept of green bonds, and illustrates the different types of green bonds. The first section also presents the most two widely known market-based standards, the Green Bond Principle and the Climate Bond Standard. Section B focuses on the European legal framework on green bonds and respectively the legal acts that have been adopted or proposed, which aim to enhance ‘green finance’ and boost sustainable growth in the EU. Mostly, Section B discusses in detail the proposal Regulation on Green Bonds focusing on the most important provisions. Lastly, Section B presents the recent initiative of the European Commission to issue the first European green bond, called “NextGenerationEU”

Cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of an early experience on cognitive abilities and affective states

In the present study we investigated the effects of neonatal handling, an animal model of early experience, on spatial learning and memory, on hippocampal glucocorticoid (GR), mineralocorticoid (MR) and type 1A serotonin (5-HT1A) receptors, as well as brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and on circulating leptin levels, of male rats. METHOD: Spatial learning and memory following an acute restraint stress (30 min) were assessed in the Morris water maze. Hippocampal GR, MR and BDNF levels were determined immunocytochemically. 5-HT1A receptors were quantified by in vitro binding autoradiography. Circulating leptin levels, following a chronic forced swimming stress, were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). Data were statistically analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS: Neonatal handling increased the ability of male rats for spatial learning and memory. It also resulted in increased GR/MR ratio, BDNF and 5-HT1A receptor levels in the hippocampus. Furthermore, leptin levels, body weight and food consumption during chronic forced swimming stress were reduced as a result of handling. CONCLUSION: Neonatal handling is shown to have a beneficial effect in the males, improving their cognitive abilities. This effect on behavior could be mediated by the handling-induced increase in hippocampal GR/MR ratio and BDNF levels. The handling-induced changes in BDNF and 5-HT1A receptors could underlie the previously documented effect of handling in preventing "depression". Furthermore, handling is shown to prevent other maladaptive states such as stress-induced hyperphagia, obesity and resistance to leptin

Increased Anxiety-Related Behavior, Impaired Cognitive Function and Cellular Alterations in the Brain of Cend1-deficient Mice

Cend1 is a neuronal-lineage specific modulator involved in coordination of cell cycle exit and differentiation of neuronal precursors. We have previously shown that Cend1−/− mice show altered cerebellar layering caused by increased proliferation of granule cell precursors, delayed radial granule cell migration and compromised Purkinje cell differentiation, leading to ataxic gait and deficits in motor coordination. To further characterize the effects of Cend1 genetic ablation we determined herein a range of behaviors, including anxiety and exploratory behavior in the elevated plus maze (EPM), associative learning in fear conditioning, and spatial learning and memory in the Morris water maze (MWM). We observed significant deficits in all tests, suggesting structural and/or functional alterations in brain regions such as the cortex, amygdala and the hippocampus. In agreement with these findings, immunohistochemistry revealed reduced numbers of γ amino butyric acid (GABA) GABAergic interneurons, but not of glutamatergic projection neurons, in the adult cerebral cortex. Reduced GABAergic interneurons were also observed in the amygdala, most notably in the basolateral nucleus. The paucity in GABAergic interneurons in adult Cend1−/− mice correlated with increased proliferation and apoptosis as well as reduced migration of neuronal progenitors from the embryonic medial ganglionic eminence (MGE), the origin of these cells. Further we noted reduced GABAergic neurons and aberrant neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, which has been previously shown to confer spatial learning and memory deficits. Our data highlight the necessity of Cend1 expression in the formation of a structurally and functionally normal brain phenotype

A Rapid and Highly Sensitive Method of Non Radioactive Colorimetric In Situ Hybridization for the Detection of mRNA on Tissue Sections

Background: Non Radioactive colorimetric In Situ Hybridization (NoRISH) with hapten labeled probes has been widely used for the study of gene expression in development, homeostasis and disease. However, improvement in the sensitivity of the method is still needed to allow for the analysis of genes expressed at low levels. Methodology/Principal Findings: A stable, non-toxic, zinc-based fixative was tested in NoRISH experiments on sections of mouse embryos using four probes (Lhx6, Lhx7, ncapg and ret) that have different spatial patterns and expression levels. We showed that Z7 can successfully replace paraformaldehyde used so far for tissue fixation in NoRISH; the morphology of the cryosections of Z7-fixed tissues was excellent, and the fixation time required for tissues sized 1 cm was 1 hr instead of 24 hr for paraformaldehyde. The hybridization signal on the sections of the Z7-treated embryos always appeared earlier than that of the PFA-fixed embryos. In addition, a 50–60 % shorter detection time was observed in specimen of Z7-treated embryos, reducing significantly the time required to complete the method. Finally and most importantly, the strength of the hybridization signal on the sections of the Z7-treated embryos always compared favorably to that of the sections of PFAfixed embryos; these data demonstrate a significant improvement of the sensitivity the method that allows for the analysis of mRNAs that are barely or not detected by the standard colorimetric NoRISH method. Conclusions/Significance: Our NoRISH method provides excellent preservation of tissue morphology, is rapid, highl

Polar Invasion and Translocation of Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus suis in a Novel Human Model of the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier

Acute bacterial meningitis is a life-threatening disease in humans. Discussed as entry sites for pathogens into the brain are the blood-brain and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB). Although human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) constitute a well established human in vitro model for the blood-brain barrier, until now no reliable human system presenting the BCSFB has been developed. Here, we describe for the first time a functional human BCSFB model based on human choroid plexus papilloma cells (HIBCPP), which display typical hallmarks of a BCSFB as the expression of junctional proteins and formation of tight junctions, a high electrical resistance and minimal levels of macromolecular flux when grown on transwell filters. Importantly, when challenged with the zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus suis or the human pathogenic bacterium Neisseria meningitidis the HIBCPP show polar bacterial invasion only from the physiologically relevant basolateral side. Meningococcal invasion is attenuated by the presence of a capsule and translocated N. meningitidis form microcolonies on the apical side of HIBCPP opposite of sites of entry. As a functionally relevant human model of the BCSFB the HIBCPP offer a wide range of options for analysis of disease-related mechanisms at the choroid plexus epithelium, especially involving human pathogens

Denial of Reward in the Neonate Shapes Sociability and Serotonergic Activity in the Adult Rat

BACKGROUND: Manipulations of the early environment are linked to long-lasting alterations of emotionality and social capabilities. Denial of rewarding mother-pup interactions in early life of rats could serve as model for child neglect. Negative consequences for social competence in later life, accompanied by changes in the serotonergic system would be expected. In contrast, rewarding mother-pup contact should promote adequate social abilities. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Male Wistar rats trained in a T-maze during postnatal days 10-13 under denial (DER) or permission (RER) of maternal contact were tested for play behavior in adolescence and for coping with defeat in adulthood. We estimated serotonin (5-HT) levels in the brain under basal conditions and following defeat, as well as serotonin receptor 1A (5-HT1A) and serotonin transporter (SERT) expression. DER rats exhibited increased aggressive-like play behavior in adolescence (i.e. increased nape attacks, p<0.0001) and selected a proactive coping style during defeat in adulthood (higher sum of proactive behaviors: number of attacks, flights, rearings and defensive upright posture; p = 0.011, p<0.05 vs RER, non-handled-NH). In adulthood, they had lower 5-HT levels in both the prefrontal cortex (p<0.05 vs RER) and the amygdala (p<0.05 vs NH), increased 5-HT levels following defeat (PFC p<0.0001) and decreased serotonin turnover (amygdala p = 0.008). The number of 5-HT1A immunopositive cells in the CA1 hippocampal area was increased (p<0.05 DER, vs RER, NH); SERT levels in the amygdala were elevated (p<0.05 vs RER, NH), but were lower in the prefrontal cortex (p<0.05 vs NH). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Denial of expected maternal reward early in life negatively affects sociability and the serotonergic system in a complex manner. We propose that our animal model could contribute to the identification of the neurobiological correlates of early neglect effects on social behavior and coping with challenges, but also in parallel with the effects of a rewarding early-life environment

The concept of sustainable development: two case studies: the Aral Sea and the Billings Reservoir

não há resumo em portuguêsThis is a study of the analysis of the concept of sustainable development. The linkages between environment and development, the meaning of sustainability and a critique of the decision making process are analysed through the comparison of two case studies the Aral Sea and the Billings reservoir. The rst study case is the Aral Sea. During the last thirty years the development of crop production was the goal of regional strategy of the Aral region countries. Wirhdrawls from the rivers caused inows to the Aral to fall at an average of over 50 km3 annually to 1-5 km3 in the 80´s. There have been observed accute environmental, health and social problems attributed to the development process. The Billings reservoir is located at the Southeastern region of the city of São Paulo, and was constructed in I937 with the objective of energy generation. During the years it was turned into a multiple-use reservoir including domestic and industrial water uses, as well as well as domestic and industrial deject reception. The accelerated development of the city and the lack of basic infrastructure projects such as sewage treatment have led to the advanced degradation of the reservoir. and to negative impacts and conicts for the entities and communities involved in the system. The study has shown that integration of environmental and developmental issues is very important for a balanced and efficient decisionmaking. This can be achieved through thorough studies of ervironmental, economic and social factors of the system under analysis. The meaning of sustainability has different dimensions for each system. Also a reformulation of the decisionmaking process is essential for the concept become operational

The concept of sustainable development: two case studies: the Aral Sea and the Billings Reservoir

não há resumo em portuguêsThis is a study of the analysis of the concept of sustainable development. The linkages between environment and development, the meaning of sustainability and a critique of the decision making process are analysed through the comparison of two case studies the Aral Sea and the Billings reservoir. The rst study case is the Aral Sea. During the last thirty years the development of crop production was the goal of regional strategy of the Aral region countries. Wirhdrawls from the rivers caused inows to the Aral to fall at an average of over 50 km3 annually to 1-5 km3 in the 80´s. There have been observed accute environmental, health and social problems attributed to the development process. The Billings reservoir is located at the Southeastern region of the city of São Paulo, and was constructed in I937 with the objective of energy generation. During the years it was turned into a multiple-use reservoir including domestic and industrial water uses, as well as well as domestic and industrial deject reception. The accelerated development of the city and the lack of basic infrastructure projects such as sewage treatment have led to the advanced degradation of the reservoir. and to negative impacts and conicts for the entities and communities involved in the system. The study has shown that integration of environmental and developmental issues is very important for a balanced and efficient decisionmaking. This can be achieved through thorough studies of ervironmental, economic and social factors of the system under analysis. The meaning of sustainability has different dimensions for each system. Also a reformulation of the decisionmaking process is essential for the concept become operational