A study of diminution in the Turkish language from the perspecitve of word-formation, semantics and pragmatics

Predmet istraživanja u ovom radu je deminucija u turskom jeziku. Lingvističko proučavanje kategorije deminutivnih izvedenica izvršeno je s tri aspekta: tvorbenog, semantičkog i pragmatičkog. Eklektički pristup bavljenju ovom temom je proizašao kao rezultat dosadašnjih istraživanja različitih usmerenja. Deminucija se u ovom radu posmatra sa sinhronijskog stanovišta oslanjajući se na primere ekscerpirane iz korpusa književno-umetničkog, publicističkog, naučnog i razgovornog funkcionalnog stila. Deminutivi predstavljaju stilski markirane izvedenice koje pripadaju sferi subjektivne ocene. Osnovno značenje koje deminutivne forme iskazuju je umanjenje, tačnije mala fizička veličina, a zatim i seme „slab, jadan, mlad, nejak“ i sl. Međutim, deminutivi su takođe i deo emotivno obojenih iskaza kojima se izriče, pre svega, pozitivan stav – simpatija, sažaljenje, naklonost, familijarnost, nežnost, ali i negativno obojen stav, koji bi mogao da se tumači kao nipodaštavanje ili poruga. U radu se polazi od utvrđivanja tvorbenih karakteristika deminutivnih izvedenica, a zatim se vrši detaljna analiza tvorbene strukture i semantičke spojivosti tvorbenih morfema. Pored imenica, prideva i priloga kao vrsta reči koje se najčešće deminuiranju, analizira se i tvorbena i semantička spojivost ostalih vrsta reči (poput zamenica, postpozicija, uzvika i dr) i deminutivno-hipokorističkih sufiksa. Imajući u vidu da je deminucija u turskom jeziku proučavana uglavnom sa aspekta morfologije, u ovom radu se analizira i lepeza različitih semantičkih realizacija deminutiva i time ukazuje na polisemantičku crtu deminutivnih oblika u turskom. Posebno se skreće pažnja na denotativna i konotativna značenja deminutiva. Analizirani su hipokoristici, kao prirodni pratioci deminutiva. S druge strane, ukazuje se i na leksikalizaciju imeničkih deminutiva, kao na pojavu koja je česta u turskom jeziku. Naime, turski je, zahvaljujući svojoj aglutinativnoj strukturi, vrlo pogodan za lako građenje novih leksema, te tvorba reči putem sufiksacije predstavlja jedan od najproduktivnijih načina za proširenje leksičkog fonda. Leksikalizacija izvedenica koje su formalno izgrađene pomoću deminutivnih nastavaka u najvećem broju slučajeva podrazumeva imenice. S leksikološkog aspekta se posmatraju termini formirani pomoću nekih od deminutivnih sufiksa, kao i lekseme poput žargonizama, neologizama, okazionalizama, koje se nalaze na periferiji leksičkog sistema. Poseban osvrt se pruža na deminutivno-hipokorističke izvedenice u okviru žargonske leksike. Jedan od najznačajnijih ciljeva ovog rada bilo je da i se opišu i analiziraju bogata pragmatička značenja deminutivno-hipokorističkih izvedenica koja se realizuju u različitim kontekstima i komunikativnim situacijama. Pored osnovnog značenja „mali“, utvrđuje se i ekspresivna vrednost deminutivnih izvedenica u njihovim različitim realizacijama – u jeziku svakodnevne usmene i pismene komunikacije, u žargonu, oslovljavanju, u dečijem jeziku i dečijoj književnosti itd. Ukazuje se i na specifičnosti upotrebe deminutiva u kratkim formama narodne književnosti. Posebno se analiziraju deminutivno-hipokoristički oblici koji se javljaju u familijarnom obraćanju u turskom. Ilokutivni efekat koji se postiže upotrebom deminutiva analiziran je i objašnjen na primerima ekscerpiranim iz jezika svakodnevne komunikacije i književnih dela.This study is based on research related to the use of diminution in the Turkish language. A linguistic analysis of the category of words derived by diminution has been carried out from a threefold perspective: that of word-formation, semantics and pragmatics. The eclectic approach to addressing this topic has emerged as a result of previous research conducted across various fields. The paper studies diminution from a synchronic point of view by relying on examples taken from a whole host of literary-artistic, journalistic, scientific and conversational functional styles. Diminutives are stylistically marked, derived words associated with the sphere of subjective judgement. The primary meaning of diminutive forms is reduction, more accurately physical ‘smallness’, and further, they may denote semantic units such as ‘weak, miserable, young, feeble’ etc. Nevertheless, diminutives are also part of emotionally coloured statements expressing, primarily, a positive attitude – of affection, sympathy, fondness, familiarity, gentleness – but also a negatively coloured attitude that might be interpreted as disparagement or ridicule. The paper begins by determining the formative characteristics of words derived by diminution, and continues with a thorough analysis of the formative/derivational structure and semantic connectivity of formative morphemes. Aside from nouns, adjectives and adverbs, both the creative and semantic compatibility of other types of words (such as pronouns, postpositions, exclamations, etc.) as well as diminutive-hypocoristic suffixes, are also analyzed, since those are words that are most often transposed into diminutive forms. Bearing in mind the fact that diminution in the Turkish language to date has been mainly studied from the standpoint of morphology, this paper also addresses a range of different semantic diminutive actualizations and thus lays special stress on the polysemic characteristic of diminutive forms in the Turkish language. Particular attention is paid to their denotative and connotative meaning. Hypocoristics, being natural companions to diminutives, are also analysed. Lexicalization of noun diminutives is also emphasized as a phenomenon that is common in the Turkish language. Moreover, owing to its agglutinative structure, the Turkish language is extremely suited to the formation of new lexemes so that suffixation stands as one of the most productive word-forming processes for the expansion of the fund of lexical items. In most cases, the lexicalization of derivatives, which are formally constructed using diminutive suffixes, involves nouns. Terms formed by some diminutive suffixes are observed from a lexicological perspective, as well as lexemes such as jargon words, neologisms, occasionalisms, which are on the margins of the lexical system. Special reference is given to diminutive-hypocoristic-derived words within the scope of jargon lexicon. One of the most important goals of this paper is to both describe and analyze the many and varied pragmatic meanings behind diminutive-hypocoristic derivatives actualized across different contexts and communicative situations. Aside from its basic meaning "small", the expressive value of diminutive derivatives is determined in their various actualizations - in the language of everyday oral and written communication, in jargon, when addressing people, in children's language and children's literature, etc. Special stress is also laid on the specific use of diminutives in short forms of folk literature. Special attention is devoted to the analysis of diminutive-hypocoristic word forms denoting familiarity in the Turkish language. The illocutionary effect achieved by using diminutives is analyzed and explained, providing ample examples excerpted from the language of everyday communication and literary works

Nosocomial infections and microbiological agents in an intensive care unit

Hospital environments provide a special setting for the interaction of microbiological agents of infection and a host of patients and healthcare workers. Although the basic tenets about the spread of infections in hospital have not changed, new issues have emerged that make infection control more problematic. The aim of this paper was to provide the epidemiological characteristics of nosocomial infections and pathogens among patients in an intensive care unit (ICU), the department with the highest risk of the infections associated with medical devices and healthcare

Pharmacogenomics of Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review

Background: Over the past two decades, various novel disease-modifying drugs for multiple sclerosis (MS) have been approved. However, there is high variability in the patient response to the available medications, which is hypothesized to be partly attributed to genetics. Objectives: To conduct a systematic review of the current literature on the pharmacogenomics of MS therapy. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE database searching for articles investigating a role of genetic variation in response to disease-modifying MS treatments, published in the English language up to October 9th, 2018. PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews were applied. Studies were included if they investigated response or nonresponse to MS treatment defined as relapse rate, by expanded disability status scale score or based on magnetic resonance imaging. The following data were extracted: first author's last name, year of publication, PMID number, sample size, ethnicity of patients, method, genes, and polymorphisms tested, outcome, significant associations with corresponding P-values and confidence intervals, response criteria, and duration of the follow-up period. Results: Overall, 48 articles published up to October 2018, evaluating response to interferon-beta, glatiramer acetate, mitoxantrone, and natalizumab, met our inclusion criteria and were included in this review. Among those, we identified 42 (87.5%) candidate gene studies and 6 (12.5%) genome-wide association studies. Existing pharmacogenomic evidence is mainly based on the results of individual studies, or on results of multiple studies, which often lack consistency. In recent years, hypothesis-free approaches identified novel candidate genes that remain to be validated. Various study designs, including the definition of clinical response, duration of the follow-up period, and methodology as well as moderate sample sizes, likely contributed to discordances between studies. However, some of the significant associations were identified in the same genes, or in the genes involved in the same biological pathways. Conclusions: At the moment, there is no available clinically actionable pharmacogenomic biomarker that would enable more personalized treatment of MS. More large-scale studies with uniform design are needed to identify novel and validate existing pharmacogenomics findings. Furthermore, studies investigating associations between rare variants and treatment response in MS patients, using next-generation sequencing technologies are warranted

The Town of Čabar, Croatia, Familiar Pseudocluster for Multiple Sclerosis – Descriptive Epidemiological Study

Previous descriptive surveys in the town of ^abar, Croatia carried out by our own epidemiological research group, have established that this area is at high risk for MS. To confirm the above assumption and to update MS frequency in this area we conducted a community-based intensive prevalence and incidence study. On December 31st 2001, the average prevalence was 205.7 per 100,000 with prevailing age-specific prevalence in the group of patients between 30 and 49 years of age. The average incidence (1948.–2004.) was 5.52/100.000 population per year (95% CI=3.27–8.72), average mortality in the year was 2.76/100 000 inhabitants (95% CI=1.26–5.24). Sexual index stood at 1:11, starting time was 10:04±28.53 in the year, and the average duration of the disease to the prevalence 11:11±27.26 years

The Town of Čabar, Croatia, Familiar Pseudocluster for Multiple Sclerosis – Descriptive Epidemiological Study

Previous descriptive surveys in the town of ^abar, Croatia carried out by our own epidemiological research group, have established that this area is at high risk for MS. To confirm the above assumption and to update MS frequency in this area we conducted a community-based intensive prevalence and incidence study. On December 31st 2001, the average prevalence was 205.7 per 100,000 with prevailing age-specific prevalence in the group of patients between 30 and 49 years of age. The average incidence (1948.–2004.) was 5.52/100.000 population per year (95% CI=3.27–8.72), average mortality in the year was 2.76/100 000 inhabitants (95% CI=1.26–5.24). Sexual index stood at 1:11, starting time was 10:04±28.53 in the year, and the average duration of the disease to the prevalence 11:11±27.26 years

HEMOCHROMATOSIS GENE MUTATIONS IN PATIENTS WITH ELEVATED SERUM IRON

Cilj našeg istraživanja bio je ustanoviti učestalost C282Y i H63D mutacija u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza različite etiologije. U istraživanje je bilo uključeno 105 bolesnika (84 muškarca i 21 žena) koji su podijeljeni u dvije skupine. U prvoj je skupini bilo 55 bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza, koji su prekomjerno konzumirali alkohol, a u drugoj 50 bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza nepoznate etiologije. Prisutnost mutacija u HFE genu ustanovili smo metodom lančane reakcije polimeraze (PCR) nakon koje je slijedila restrikcija s odgovarajućim restrikcijskim endonukleazama. Prema dobivenim rezultatima, frekvencije C282Y i H63D alela u skupini bolesnika koji su konzumirali alkohol, iznose 4,5% i 20,1%, a u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza nepoznate etiologije 18,0% i 19,0%. Usporedbom učestalosti HFE alela i genotipova između navedenih skupina bolesnika utvrdili smo statistički značajnu razliku (p<0,05) u frekvenciji C282Y alela kao i u frekvenciji C282Y homozigota. Naši rezultati upućuju na to da je analiza mutacija HFE gena korisna u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog `eljeza, pogotovo kad nije jasno ima li bolesnik jetrenu bolest s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza ili ima nasljednu hemokromatozu uz povišene nalaze jetrenih enzima.To study the role of hemochromatosis gene mutations in patients with elevated serum iron, we have analysed C282Y and H63D mutations of the HFE gene. The investigation included 105 patients (84 males and 21 females) divided in two groups: 55 active alcoholic individuals (49 males and 6 females) and 50 individuals (35 males and 15 females) with elevated serum iron of unknown etiology. The analysis of HFE gene mutations was performed using the PCR-RFLP method. According to our results C282Y and H63D allele frequencies were 4.54% and 20.09% in active alcoholics and 18.00% and 19.00% in the second group of patients without the history of alcohol consumption, respectively. Comparing the HFE allele and genotype frequencies between investigated groups statistically significant differences (p 0.05) were observed in the frequency of C282Y allele and the frequency of C282Y homozygotes. Our results suggest that the analysis of HFE mutations can be useful in patients with the elevated serum iron, especially in patients with unclear hereditary hemochromatosis or another liver disease, such as alcoholic liver diseas

HEMOCHROMATOSIS GENE MUTATIONS IN PATIENTS WITH ELEVATED SERUM IRON

Cilj našeg istraživanja bio je ustanoviti učestalost C282Y i H63D mutacija u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza različite etiologije. U istraživanje je bilo uključeno 105 bolesnika (84 muškarca i 21 žena) koji su podijeljeni u dvije skupine. U prvoj je skupini bilo 55 bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza, koji su prekomjerno konzumirali alkohol, a u drugoj 50 bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza nepoznate etiologije. Prisutnost mutacija u HFE genu ustanovili smo metodom lančane reakcije polimeraze (PCR) nakon koje je slijedila restrikcija s odgovarajućim restrikcijskim endonukleazama. Prema dobivenim rezultatima, frekvencije C282Y i H63D alela u skupini bolesnika koji su konzumirali alkohol, iznose 4,5% i 20,1%, a u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza nepoznate etiologije 18,0% i 19,0%. Usporedbom učestalosti HFE alela i genotipova između navedenih skupina bolesnika utvrdili smo statistički značajnu razliku (p<0,05) u frekvenciji C282Y alela kao i u frekvenciji C282Y homozigota. Naši rezultati upućuju na to da je analiza mutacija HFE gena korisna u bolesnika s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog `eljeza, pogotovo kad nije jasno ima li bolesnik jetrenu bolest s povišenim vrijednostima serumskog željeza ili ima nasljednu hemokromatozu uz povišene nalaze jetrenih enzima.To study the role of hemochromatosis gene mutations in patients with elevated serum iron, we have analysed C282Y and H63D mutations of the HFE gene. The investigation included 105 patients (84 males and 21 females) divided in two groups: 55 active alcoholic individuals (49 males and 6 females) and 50 individuals (35 males and 15 females) with elevated serum iron of unknown etiology. The analysis of HFE gene mutations was performed using the PCR-RFLP method. According to our results C282Y and H63D allele frequencies were 4.54% and 20.09% in active alcoholics and 18.00% and 19.00% in the second group of patients without the history of alcohol consumption, respectively. Comparing the HFE allele and genotype frequencies between investigated groups statistically significant differences (p 0.05) were observed in the frequency of C282Y allele and the frequency of C282Y homozygotes. Our results suggest that the analysis of HFE mutations can be useful in patients with the elevated serum iron, especially in patients with unclear hereditary hemochromatosis or another liver disease, such as alcoholic liver diseas

Genes and celiac disease

Celijakija je bolest poremećenog imunosnog odgovora potaknutog glutenom koja se javlja u genetički predisponiranih osoba. Svrha ovog rada je prikazati dosadašnje spoznaje iz genetike celijakije. Genska podloga celijakije vezana za lokus humanih leukocitnih antigena kao dominantnog genetičkog elementa detaljno je razjašnjena. No postoji i velik broj gena izvan ove regije koji pridonose etiopatogenezi bolesti, a samo su dijelom zajednički pojedinim bolesnicima, što upućuje na genetičku heterogenost bolesti. Uz to je opaženo da su mnogi od tih rizičnih lokusa u celijakiji zajednički s lokusima za druge autoimunosne bolesti. Značajan doprinos novim spoznajama daju recentne cjelogenomske asocijacijske studije, ali tek treba istražiti velik dio još i sad nepoznate heritabilnosti u celijakiji.Celiac disease is a chronic infl ammatory disease of the small intestine triggered by gluten intake, which occurs in genetically susceptible individuals. The purpose of this paper is to present recent fi ndings in the genetics of celiac disease. Genetic background of celiac disease related to human leukocyte antigen locus (HLA) as a dominant genetic element has been well described. However, the existence of a large number of non-HLA celiac disease genes, only partly shared by each individual patient, suggests genetic heterogeneity of the disease. In addition, it has been observed that many of these risk loci in celiac disease are common with the loci for other autoimmune diseases. A signifi cant contribution to our knowledge has been provided by recent genome-wide association studies, but great part of the still unknown heritability in celiac disease is yet to be explored in the future