Biogeographic analysis of the composition of the mammalian fauna of Togo (West Africa)

The Dahomey Gap in West Africa is a human-derived savannah-like vegetation zone interspersed by patches of moist forest, with large rainforest blocks at both West (Upper Guinean Forest) and East (Lower Guinean Forest) of its limits. Togo is a tiny country situated in the middle of the Dahomey Gap. In this paper, a biogeographic analysis of the composition of the mammalian fauna of Togo is presented, by classifying each species on the basis of five distinct ecological distribution patterns. The greatest proportion of species were Pan-African (88.0%). Excluding the Pan-African species from the analysis, the mammalian fauna appeared to be affiliated similarly to both Upper Guinean and Lower Guinean Forest blocks. Only three endemic species were observed, all of them being rodents: Cryptomys zechi (Batyergidae), Funisciurus substriatus (Sciuridae), and Leimacomys buettneri (Muridae). Considering only the multispecies genera, the great majority did not show any barrier effect by the Dahomey Gap on their own species, as all of them did occur on both sides of Togo. A barrier effect by the Dahomey Gap was uncovered in 8 genera; overall, the Dahomey Gap apparently showed a barrier effect on 28.6% of the multispecies genera. It is emphasized that the full understanding of the role of the Dahomey Gap as a biogeographic barrier and of its island forests as centers of endemism is impeded by the lack of biogeographic reviews and meta-analyses on the composition of faunal and floral groups of the entire region

SPECIES RICHNESS AND VARIATION IN THE COMMUNITY COMPOSITION OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN FOUR SITES OF THE DAHOMEY GAP IN BENIN, WEST AFRICA

In order to analyze the community composition of herpetofauna in the Dahomey Gap area in West Africa, we studied the amphibians and reptiles of distinct sites in Benin. Our aims were to highlight whether these communities are homogeneous (as can be predicted by the fact that the Dahomey Gap is a relatively homogeneous vegetation zone) or whether there are remarkable site-specific differences. In particular, we tested the hypothesis that there should be significant differences in community composition between savannah and the open forest remnants or gallery forests along the riverine sites, by applying a Visual Encounter Survey protocol. We found that the herpetological species were typically those of the West African savannahs, with no species belonging to another ecosystem different from the Guinean and Sudanian savannahs. Anthropophilic species were also frequently observed. Our study also documented that the community composition may vary considerably in terms of species richness by site within the Dahomey Gap main habitats, whereas the bulk of the communities of both taxa remain the same

De nouvelles données sur le Dauphin à bosse de l’Atlantique (Sousa teuszii) en Guinée, au Nigéria, au Cameroun et au Togo soulignent la pression des pêcheries et de la demande en viande d’origine marine

Le Dauphin à bosse de l’ Atlantique (Sousa teuszii) est une espèce encore mal connue: sa biologie, sa distribution détaillée et l’existence de populations restent encore à préciser. Des suivis de terrain, des enquêtes et des observations opportunistes ont permis d’identifier plusieurs nouveaux spécimens, observés en mer ou retrouvés après leur capture, dans quatre pays, dont le Nigéria et le Togo où la présence de S. teuszii, bien que fortement suspectée, n’avait jamais été prouvée. De nouvelles données, provenant des îles Tristao et de l’estuaire du Río Nuñez en Guinée du nord, indiquent que les populations du Rio do Jêba- Bijagos (Guinée-Bissau) et Guinée du sud devraient être combinées dans une seule population Guinéenne. La population du golfe de Guinée, qui correspond à la population historique de S. teuszii, anciennement appelée « dauphins du Cameroun », s’étend au minimum du Togo au sud du Cameroun. Plusieurs spécimens prouvent que la mortalité de S. teuszii causée par des captures accidentelles ou ciblées est significative, répandue et difficilement quantifiable en raison des contrôles sporadiques qui sont réalisés. Ces captures sont préoccupantes en Guinée, au Nigéria et au Cameroun. Les dauphins sont capturés accidentellement dans des filets maillants de pêcheries artisanales littorales, puis consommés comme « viande de brousse marine ». La commercialisation de ce type de viande étant croissante, les captures intentionnelles risquent aussi d'être encouragées. La rareté des observations et la petite taille des groupes dans le golfe de Guinée du nord indiquent des communautés de dauphins qui semblent plutôt en déclin. Des variations de répartition de l’espèce peuvent apparaître de novo le long des côtes fortement peuplées par l’Homme, après des décennies de prises accessoires, de compétition pour les ressources alimentaires, et de perte d’habitat suite à un développement côtier irréversible. Nous suggérons que le manque d’effort de suivi n’explique pas entièrement l’absence d’observations de S. teuszii sur les 1900 km de littoral allant du Ghana à la Sierra Leone, et particulièrement au Ghana où le suivi des petits cétacés est mieux documenté. La mise en œuvre d’une politique de conservation rigoureuse devient dès lors de plus en plus urgente. De nouvelles Aires Marines Protégées binationales et transfrontalières pourraient avoir des effets positifs et mesurables en termes de conservation en limitant la compétition pour les proies avec les pêcheries, en limitant les captures accidentelles dans les filets et en limitant la destruction des habitats. L’installation d’un groupe de travail ad hoc, à l’échelle de la région considérée, est recommandée afin d’identifier des mesures pratiques visant à éviter que le Dauphin à bosse de l’Atlantique, maintenant menacé, ne se dirige vers l’extinction.The Atlantic humpback dolphin's biology, small-scale distribution and population structure are poorly known. Dedicated surveys and incidental observations resulted in new specimens and sighting records in four nations, of which Nigeria and Togo comprise long-suspected but newly documented range states. Multiple records at the Tristao Islands and Río Nuñez Estuary in northern Guinea indicate that the management stocks of Rio do Jêba-Bijagos (Guinea-Bissau) and South Guinea should be combined into a single Guineas stock. A Gulf of Guinea stock, the historical 'Cameroon dolphins', extends from Togo to (at least) southern Cameroon. Specimen evidence shows fisheries-caused mortality of S. teuszii is significant, widespread, and non-quantifiable at present due to only sporadic monitoring of landings. Of special concern are catches in Guinea, Nigeria and Cameroon. All dolphins were killed in small-scale nearshore fisheries, mostly from incidental gill-net entanglement, and were locally consumed as marine bushmeat. With increasing commercialization however, intentional captures may be encouraged. Rare sightings of mostly small groups in the northern Gulf of Guinea point to remnant, struggling, dolphin communities. De novo distribution gaps may emerge along heavily populated coasts following decades of by-catches, prey competition and habitat loss from irreversible coastal development. We suggest that scarcity of survey effort does not fully explain the absence of S. teuszii records over 1900 km of coastlines between Ghana and Sierra Leone, and particularly in Ghana where small cetacean exploitation is extensive. The implementation of a stringent conservation policy becomes increasingly urgent. New binational, border-straddling Marine Protected Areas could have significant conservation effects by limiting prey competition from fisheries and mitigating net entanglements and habitat destruction. The set-up of a regional ad hoc task force is strongly recommended to help introduce such practicable measures that could stop the threatened Atlantic humpback dolphin from sliding towards extinction

Exploitation Patterns of Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) by Marine Artisanal Fisheries in Togo (West Africa)

Pelagic fish, including sardines and anchovies (Order Clupeiformes), are the most common species taken by artisanal marine fisheries along the Togolese coast. We investigated fisher involvement as well as fish captures over a period of 10 years, particularly of the European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus). Our results indicate that 60% of fishers operated from the Lomé fishing harbour, most fishers being Ghanaians working seasonally in Togo. 63.7% of all the fishers used canoes with outboards, a higher percentage compared to the previous decades. Seven fishing gear type were identified, with bottom gillnet and surface gillnet being the most commonly used. However, in the most important fishing camp in the country in terms of fish production (Lomé fishing harbour), all fishers used shark nets. Overall, fisheries catches did not change significantly across years, but anchovy fishing effort and catch per unit of effort (CPUE) declined over the study period, suggesting some depletion of the species stocks on the Togolese coast and a demotivation of fishers.

Trophic resource use by sympatric vs. allopatric Pelomedusid turtles in West African forest waterbodies

Organisms that are similar in size, morphological characteristics, and adaptations, including vertebrates, often coexist by partitioning the available resources (food, space, and time). So, studies of the dynamics of these cases of coexistence are scientifically interesting. Here, we study a coexistence case of two species of freshwater turtles inhabiting the forest waterbodies of West Africa, focusing on the dietary habits of the two species. We found that both turtle species are omnivorous generalists, eating both vegetal and animal matter abundantly. However, there were clear interspecific differences, with the larger of the two species (P. cupulatta) eating more vertebrates (mainly fish but occasionally other vertebrates), whereas P. castaneus consumed more invertebrates. These patterns appeared consistently within the species and across sites, highlighting that the same patterns were likely in other conspecific populations from the Upper Guinean forest streams (Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia). Our study also showed that interspecific competition for food does not occur between these two species; instead, previous studies uncovered that a clear partitioning of the habitat niche occurs. We conclude that the food resource is likely unlimited in the study areas, as it is not the case in more arid environments (since food shortages may occur during the dry season). We anticipate that, within the Pelomedusidae communities throughout Africa, intense competition for food probably occurs in the Sahel and Sudanian vegetation zones, particularly during the dry months, but is unlikely within the Guinea and wet savannah region and even less likely in the Guineo-Congolian rainforest region

Exploring the main threats to the threatened African spurred tortoise Centrochelys sulcata in the West African Sahel

AbstractThe African spurred tortoiseCentrochelys sulcatais the second largest terrestrial turtle, with a scattered distribution across the West African Sahel. This species is threatened and declining consistently throughout its range, but little is known about the causes of its decline. It has been hypothesized that the decline is attributable to (1) competition with domestic cattle, (2) wildfire, and (3) the international pet trade. We conducted a series of analyses to investigate these three causes. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were analysed using a spatially explicit approach, using a database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and logistic regression modelling; hypothesis 3 was tested by analysing the CITES trade database for 1990–2010. We found a significant negative correlation between intensity of grazing (expressed as density of cattle, km−2) and the presence of spurred tortoises, and this negative effect increased when coupled with high fire intensity, whereas wildfires alone did not have a significant influence on the species' distribution at the global scale. There was a decrease in the annual export of wild individuals for the pet trade after the introduction of export quotas by country and by year, but trade data must be considered with caution

A preliminary assessment of bacteria in “ranched” ball pythons (Python regius), Togo, West Africa

Captive reptiles are routinely identified as reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria and reports of reptile-associated infections relating to some species are well documented (e.g., salmonellosis). Currently, relatively little is known about the epidemiology and bacteria of ball pythons. We carried out a survey of ball python farms in Togo, West Africa to assess the presence of any potentially pathogenic bacterial taxa that have been identified in recent scientific literature relating to this species. The presence of bacteria belonging to the genera Acinetobacter, Bacteroides, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Lysobacter, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Tsukamurella in oral and cloacal samples taken from five individual ball pythons is of potential concern for horizontal transmission given that pathogenic species belonging to these genera have been previously documented. The presence of bacteria belonging to the genera Clostridium, Escherichia, Moraxella, and Stenotrophomonas in the oral and rectal samples taken from five mice used to feed ball pythons suggests that they represent a potential reservoir of infection for wild caught ball pythons and their progeny. Furthermore, possible sources of environmental contamination include other captive amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals, as well as free ranging birds and small mammals. Additional surveillance of ball pythons in the wild and in captivity at python farms in West Africa will shed light on whether or not this type of commercial activity is increasing pathogen exposure and lowering barriers to transmission. Meanwhile, as a precautionary measure, it is recommended that python farms should immediately establish biosecurity and disease surveillance practices to minimize potential horizontal and vertical bacterial transfer

Diversity and Relative Abundance of Ungulates and Other Medium and Large Mammals in Flooded Forests in the Dahomey Gap (Togo)

"The Dahomey Gap" is a human-derived mostly savannah region that separates the Guineo-Congolian rainforest block into two major units: the Upper Guinean and the Lower Guinean Forest blocks. Several forest patches are distributed throughout this savannah-dominated habitat. The mammal communities in the Dahomey Gap region have been poorly studied. In this paper we analyse the species richness and abundance of, as well as conservation implications for, medium and large mammals (especially ungulates) inhabiting a complex of flooded forests near the Mono river in south-eastern Togo. We use several field methods to describe the species richness of mammals in this area, including camera-trapping, recce transects, Kilometric Index of Abundance (KIA) estimates, examination of hunters' catches and face-to-face hunter interviews. Overall, we directly recorded 19 species that coexist in these forests. Based on interviews, nine other species were confirmed as present in the study area. Only five species were common: Cephalophus rufilatus, Tragelaphus scriptus, Chlorocebus aethiops, Atilax paludinosus and Herpestes ichneumon. The area still contains various threatened species such as Tragelaphus spekii and Hippopotamus amphibius. We stress that to ensure the protection of the Dahomey Gap mammals, it is important to seriously consider protecting not only the forest patches but also the surroundings, mainly savannah landscapes

Snake oil and pangolin scales: insights into wild animal use at “Marché des Fétiches” traditional medicine market, Togo

Traditional medicine beliefs are culturally important in some West African communities, where there is a thriving domestic consumer demand for wild animal derivatives. Yet, such practices can threaten the conservation of wild populations and negatively impact animal welfare. To identify those species most likely to be affected, we investigated wildlife derivative trade at the largest fetish market of West Africa in Togo. Specifically, we asked what wild animals or animal products were most profitable, which wild animals were perceived by vendors to have increased most in rarity and what they were used for. A key question was whether vendors also sold plant-based alternatives. Vendors provided 36 local animal names, from which we inferred an estimated 281 species. Thirteen percent of these inferred species are categorised on the IUCN Red List as threatened (n = 35); 26% are declining (n = 72). The most commonly cited most profitable wildlife derivatives were “Pangolin” and “Python”; the most commonly cited most profitable live wild animal was “Chameleon”. Overall, wildlife use was predominantly spiritual rather than medicinal. Plant-based alternatives were available, but comprised < 40% of sales and appeared to be considered less important or less useful than wild animal products. The legal status of this domestic trade in Togo is unclear given the existence of potentially conflicting national legislation. In addition to further research focused on the actual impacts on populations and individuals of the species indicated, socio-economic importance of this trade, societal pressures driving consumer demand and an assessment of the feasibility of sustainable plant-based alternatives is warranted

Trade in African Grey Parrots for Belief-Based Use: Insights From West Africa's Largest Traditional Medicine Market

Over 1.2 million wild-sourced African Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) have reportedly been traded internationally since the 1970s, the majority of which were taken from the wild with serious implications for conservation, animal welfare, and biosecurity. While international trade has mostly been for the pet trade, in some West African countries, Grey parrots are also consumed for belief-based use. However, to date there has been little research into the scale and scope of this trade and its drivers. Here, we explore multiple facets of the trade in Grey parrots for belief-based use through interviews with five vendors at the largest “fetish” market of West Africa in Togo. We focus on understanding the purpose of medicinal and spiritual use of Grey parrots, and the socio-economic dimensions of this trade. Parrot heads were the most valuable and most frequently traded body part over the last year (2017), sold primarily for the medicinal purpose of helping to “improve memory.” Feathers were the most common transaction for spiritual use, largely purchased for “attracting clients”, “love”, and to “help with divorce”. Whole parrots and parrot heads had also been traded for spiritual use, mainly for “good luck” and “protection from witchcraft”. Our findings suggest ~900 Grey parrots were traded over the past 10 years in the market. Most vendors perceived an increase in the rarity of Grey parrot body parts over the past 5 years, which may reflect increased restrictions on international trade and/or the deteriorating state of wild populations. Although the sale of feathers collected from beneath roosting sites does not negatively impact wild populations, the relatively low value of these parts compared with other parrot derivatives and live parrots, suggests there may be minimal opportunity to leverage market mechanisms to protect wild populations through sustainable use. We identify a need for further investigations to examine the complex relationship between capture to supply the international pet market, a process in which many parrots die, and the local trade in belief-based use of derivatives