Reconnaissance Basement Geology and Tectonics of South Zealandia

We report new U‐Pb zircon ages, geochemical and isotopic data for Mesozoic igneous rocks, and new seismic interpretations of mostly submerged South Zealandia (1.5 Mkm2). We use these data, along with existing geological and geophysical data sets, to refine the extent and nature of geological units. Our new 1:25 M geological map of South Zealandia provides a regional framework to investigate the rifting and breakup that formed Zealandia, Earth's most submerged continent. Samples of prerift (pre‐100 Ma) plutonic rocks can be matched with on‐land New Zealand igneous suites and indicate an east‐west strike for the subduction‐related 260 to 105‐Ma Median Batholith across the Campbell Plateau. The plutonic chronology of formerly contiguous plutonic rocks in West Antarctica reveals similar pulses and lulls to the Median Batholith. Contrary to previous interpretations, the Median Batholith does not coincide with the 1,600‐km‐long Campbell Magnetic Anomaly System. Instead we interpret the continental magnetic anomalies to represent a mainly mafic igneous unit, whose shape and extent is controlled by synrift structures related to Gondwana breakup. Correlatives of some of these unsampled igneous rocks may be exposed as circa 85 Ma alkalic volcanic rocks on the Chatham Islands. Extension directions varied by up to 65° from 100 to 80 Ma, and we suggest this allowed this large area to thin considerably before final rupture to form new oceanic crust. Synrift (90–80 Ma) structures cut the oroclinal bend in southern South Island and support a pre‐early Late Cretaceous age of orocline formation.The work was supported by Core Research Funding to GNS Science by the New Zealand Government Ministry of Business, Employment and Innovation

Subduction of the oceanic Hikurangi Plateau and its impact on the Kermadec arc

Large igneous province subduction is a rare process on Earth. A modern example is the subduction of the oceanic Hikurangi Plateau beneath the southern Kermadec arc, offshore New Zealand. This segment of the arc has the largest total lava volume erupted and the highest volcano density of the entire Kermadec arc. Here we show that Kermadec arc lavas south of B32°S have elevated Pb and Sr and low Nd isotope ratios, which argues, together with increasing seafloor depth, forearc retreat and crustal thinning, for initial Hikurangi Plateau—Kermadec arc collision B250 km north of its present position. The combined data set indicates that a much larger portion of the Hikurangi Plateau (the missing Ontong Java Nui piece) than previously believed has already been subducted. Oblique plate convergence caused southward migration of the thickened and buoyant oceanic plateau crust, creating a buoyant ‘Hikurangi’ me´lange beneath the Moho that interacts with ascending arc melts

The Interrelationships between Faulting and Volcanism in the Okataina Volcanic Centre, New Zealand

Continental rifts show close spatial relations between faulting and volcanism, however the interrelations between each process and their roles in the accommodation of regional extension are not well understood. The geometric and kinematic relations between an active silicic caldera complex and active faults in the upper 3-4 km of the crust (i.e. Taupo Rift) are investigated using regional gravity data, digital elevation models, outcrop mapping, seismic reflection lines, focal mechanisms and an historical account of the 1886 AD Tarawera eruption adjacent to, and within, the Okataina Volcanic Centre, New Zealand.The location and geometry of the Okataina Caldera were influenced by pre-existing faults. The caldera is elongate north-south, has a maximum subsidence of 3 +/- 0.5 km at the rift axis and occupies a 10 km hard-linked left step in the rift. The principal rift faults (55-75 degrees dip) define the location and geometry of the northwest and southeast margins and locally accommodate piecemeal caldera collapse. Segments of the east and west margins of the caldera margin are near vertical (70-90 degrees dip), trend north-south, and are inferred to be faults formed by the reactivation of a pervasive Mesozoic basement fabric (i.e. bedding, terrane boundaries, and/or faults). Measured displacements along the Paeroa and Whirinaki Fault zones in, and adjacent to, the Okataina Volcanic Centre took place over time periods ranging from 60 to 220 ka (together with historical accounts of the 1886 AD Tarawera eruption). These indicate that neither dike intrusion nor caldera collapse have a measurable influence on fault displacement rates outside the volcanic complex. Within the volcanic complex, vertical displacement along the Whirinaki Fault zone increases by up to 50% between the caldera topographic margin and inner collapse boundary. This increase in vertical displacement is predominantly due to the collapse of the caldera 60 ka ago. In the Okataina Volcanic Centre, extension is accommodated by a combination of tectonic faulting, dike intrusion, and gravitational caldera collapse. Gravitational caldera collapse is however, superimposed on regional extension without contributing to it. Rift-orthogonal extension dominates across the Taupo Rift with a minor (</= 20 degrees) component of right-lateral slip increasing northwards. The regional principal horizontal extension direction rotates 30 degrees clockwise south to north along the rift. The modal principal horizontal extension direction for the Okataina Volcanic Centre trends ~145 degrees, approximately normal to northeast striking rift faults and intra-caldera linear vent zones, and oblique to north-south faults. Zones of crustal weakness, brittle deformation, and dilation at the intersections of northeast-southwest dip slip and north-south oblique slip active fault sets are inferred to locally promote the ascent of magma. Preliminary examination of volcanism outside the Okataina Volcanic Centre suggests that intersecting northeast-southwest and north-south fault sets may also play a role in defining the geometry of calderas and locations of volcanic centres throughout the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Outside these volcanic centres (e.g. Taupo and Okataina) active extension is primarily accommodated by normal faulting which is driven by tectonic processes (e.g. far-field plate motions) and is not attributed to dike intrusion. The Taupo Rift has not yet reached the stage where it is dominated by magma-assisted extension and is primarily a young tectonic rift in an arc environment

Normal Faulting, Volcanism And Fluid Flow, Hikurangi Subduction Plate Boundary, New Zealand

This thesis investigates normal faulting and its influence on fluid flow over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales using tunnel engineering geological logs, outcrop, surface fault traces, earthquakes, gravity, and volcanic ages. These data have been used to investigate the impact of faults on fluid flow (chapter 2), the geometry and kinematics of the Taupo Rift (chapter 3), the hydration and dehydration of the subducting Pacific plate and its influence on the Taupo Volcanic Zone (chapter 4), the migration of arc volcanism across the North Island over the 16 Myr and the associated changes in slab geometry (chapter 5) and the Pacific-Australia relative plate motion vectors since 38 Ma and their implications for arc volcanism and deformation along the Hikurangi margin (chapter 6). The results for each of these five chapters are presented in the five paragraphs below. Tunnels excavated along the margins of the southern Taupo Rift at depths < 500 m provide data on the spatial relationships between faulting and ground water flow. The geometry and hydraulic properties of fault-zones for Mesozoic basement and Miocene strata vary by several orders of magnitude approximating power-law distributions with the dimensions of these zones dependent on many factors including displacement, hostrock type and fault geometries. Despite fault-zones accounting for a small proportion of the total sample length (≤ 15%), localised flow of ground water into the tunnels occurs almost exclusively (≥ 91%) within, and immediately adjacent to, these zones. The spatial distribution and rate of flow from fault-zones are highly variable with typically ≤ 50% of fault-zones in any given orientation flowing. The entire basement dataset shows that 81% of the flow-rate occurs from fault-zones ≥ 10 m wide, with a third of the total flow-rate originating from a single fault-zone (i.e. the golden fracture). The higher flow rates for the largest faults are interpreted to arise because these structures are the most connected to other faults and to the ground surface. The structural geometry and kinematics of rifting is constrained by earthquake focal mechanisms and by geological slip and fault mapping. Comparison of present day geometry and kinematics of normal faulting in the Taupo Rift (α=76-84°) with intra-arc rifting in the Taranaki Basin and southern Havre Trough show, that for at least the last 4 Myr, the slab and the associated changes in its geometry have exerted a first-order control on the location, geometry, and extension direction of intra-arc rifting in the North Island. Second-order features of rifting in the central North Island include a clockwise ~20° northwards change in the strike of normal faults and trend of the extension direction. In the southern rift normal faults are parallel to, and potentially reactivate, Mesozoic basement fabric (e.g., faults and bedding). By contrast, in the northern rift faults diverge from basement fabric by up to 55° where focal mechanisms indicate that extension is achieved by oblique to right-lateral strike-slip along basement fabric and dip-slip on rift faults. Hydration and dehydration of the subducting Pacific plate is elucidated by earthquake densities and focal mechanisms within the slab. The hydration of the subducting plate varies spatially and is an important determinant for the location of arc volcanism in the overriding plate. The location and high volcanic productivity of the TVZ can be linked to the subduction water cycle, where hydration and subsequent dehydration of the subducting oceanic lithosphere is primarily accomplished by normal-faulting earthquakes. The anomalously high heat flow and volcanic productivity of the TVZ is spatially associated with high rates of seismicity in the underlying slab mantle at depths of 130-210 km which can be tracked back to high rates of deeply penetrating shallow intraplate seismicity at the trench in proximity to oceanic fluids. Dehydration of the slab mantle correlates with the location and productivity of active North Island volcanic centres, indicating this volcanism is controlled by fluids fluxing from the subducting plate. The ages and locations of arc volcanoes provide constraints on the migration of volcanism across the North Island over the last 20 Myr. Arc-front volcanoes have migrated southeast by 150 km in the last 8 Ma (185 km since 16 Ma) sub-parallel to the present active arc. Migration of the arc is interpreted to mainly reflect slab steepening and rollback. The strike of the Pacific plate beneath the North Island, imaged by Benioff zone seismicity (50-200 km) and positive mantle velocity anomalies (200-600 km) is parallel to the northeast trend of arc-front volcanism. Arc parallelism since 16 Ma is consistent with the view that the subducting plate beneath the North Island has not rotated clockwise about vertical axes which is in contrast to overriding plate vertical-axis rotations of ≥ 30º. Acceleration of arc-front migration rates (~4 mm/yr to ~18 mm/yr), eruption of high Mg# andesites, increasing eruption frequency and size, and uplift of the over-riding plate indicate an increase in the hydration, temperature, and size of the mantle wedge beneath the central North Island from ~7 Ma. Seafloor spreading data in conjunction with GPlates have been used to generate relative plate motion vectors across the Hikurangi margin since 38 Ma. Tracking the southern and down-dip limits of the seismically imaged Pacific slab beneath the New Zealand indicates arc volcanism in Northland from ~23 Ma and the Taranaki Basin between ~20 and 11 Ma requires Pacific plate subduction from at (or beyond) the northern North Island continental margin from at least 38 Ma to the present. Pacific plate motion in a west dipping subduction model shows a minimum horizontal transport distance of 285 km preceding the initiation of arc volcanism along the Northland-arc normal to the motion vector, a distance more than sufficient for self-sustaining subduction to occur. Arc-normal convergence rates along the Hikurangi margin doubled from 11 to 23 mm/yr between 20 and 16 Ma, increasing again by approximately a third between 8 and 6 Ma. This latest increase in arc-normal rates coincided with changes in relative plate motions along the entire SW Pacific plate boundary and steepening/rollback of the Pacific plate

Polygonal faulting and seal integrity in the Bonaparte Basin, Australia

Polygonal fault systems are observed in over 100 sedimentary basins worldwide where they are confined to fine-grained strata and have the potential to impact on seal integrity for CO2 storage and hydrocarbon reservoirs. 3D seismic reflection and well data have been used to characterise a layer-bound polygonal fault system and gas chimneys in the Bathurst Island Group regional seal, Petrel Sub-basin, offshore NW Australia. Segmented fault arrays extend through the entire faulted interval which contains at least 10 tiers of polygonal faults each spanning ∼4 Myrs of sediment deposition. Polygonal fault densities and intersections reach a maximum at 1000–1100 ms TWT and in some cases extend into the Sandpiper Sandstone reservoir at >1200–1300 ms TWT. Down-dip displacement profiles are symmetrical and increase progressively across tier boundaries towards maxima of ∼25–47 ms between 600 and 1100 ms. These systematic displacement variations are similar to those of tectonic faults and suggest that fault segments in different tiers develop synchronously as kinematically coherent arrays. Three-dimensional imaging of the polygonal fault system indicates that throughout the Bathurst Island Group the fault network is well connected vertically and horizontally. Polygonal faulting may locally promote gas flow through the seal to the seabed suggesting that, where faulted, the Bathurst Island Group may not be an effective seal for CO2 storage in the study area

Expansion of Figure 9. Two-phase Cretaceous–Paleocene rifting in the Taranaki Basin region, New Zealand; implications for Gondwana break-up

Composite seismic transect from the southwest of the Taranaki Basin through well Kiwa-1