The importance of scale in the development of ecosystem service indicators?

Understanding the interactions between ecosystems and their underlying environmental constraints, the services which they provide, and the people benefiting from those services, are essential for the effective management and sustainability of socio-ecosystems (ecosystems which support and are impacted upon by humans). Ecosystem service (ES) indicators attempt to provide a means of measuring service provision, but the scale at which they are developed is likely to impact on how they can be used to influence the effective management of socio-ecosystems. This paper compares science and practice in the development of service measures at contrasting scales in: (a) an active research project, focused on local catchment management to improve water quality at Loweswater in the English Lake District, and (b) a science-based study developing national scale indicators of water quality using the Countryside Survey dataset. The paper explores different approaches taken towards the production of ecological measures, which inform on either single or multiple ES delivery across the land/water interface, dependent on scale. It considers how scale impacts on the process of gathering data and on the types of data which can contribute to ES indicators. It further reflects on how service indicators representing different scales of study may be used and by whom. Local scales, in this case the catchment scale, provide a valuable socio-ecological unit for exploring ES delivery, but the extent to which ecosystem service indicators may be used by local actors is uncertain. Larger scale studies may be confined to single services by virtue of data availability but can provide useful policy tools for targeting action. The paper concludes that ‘scale’ is an important consideration when developing ES indicators. It also concludes that questions around the utility of such indicators should consider the relevance of scale and how it relates to governance

Development of a UV miniaturised Fourier transform spectrometer (MicroFTS) for the detection of dissolved organic carbon in water

Within the UK and overseas, there are increasing scientific and water industry needs to acquire spatially and temporally intensive measurements of levels and molecular character of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the aquatic environment. The need is particularly acute in upland catchments that are often crucial for drinking water supply, and where DOC concentrations are high and have been increasing in recent years. Spectrometer-based systems currently on the market for this purpose are heavy, cumbersome, have a large power requirement, not sensitive in low light conditions, measure absorbance at single wavelengths, require frequent recalibration by trained operators and provide data based on hidden algorithms that limit interpretation of the resulting data. We have developed a new smaller, lighter, and self-calibrating instrument, combining novel miniaturisation of Fourier Transform Spectrometry, and a new scientifically peer-reviewed (and published) approach to assessing DOC concentrations in water. The portable sensor system uses a xenon flash lamp, where the light pulse is collimated and focused into one input of a bifurcated fibre dip probe. At the fibre tip, light is collimated and reflected in the water sample region over a total path length of 5mm. Shorter wavelengths (near the UV) are absorbed due to water containing DOC concentration. Light from the output end of the bifurcated fibre is collimated and coupled to the micro Fourier Transform Spectrometer. Within the interferometer, a broadband beam splitter and two concave mirrors are used to create an optical path difference between the beams. A UV sensitive detector is placed at the focus point of the generated interferogram. The interferogram is recorded and a Fourier Transform is applied to retrieve the spectral data. An absorbance of the DOC is measured and when a ratio is taken between the water sample containing DOC and DI water. Both detector and flash-lamp are triggered by an on-board dual wavefunction generator with a delay of 100us between the pulses. The instrument has its own portable power supply for powering the flash-lamp and pulse generator and has the capability and input for connecting with a solar panel for recharging when required

Detection of T. urartu Introgressions in Wheat and Development of a Panel of Interspecific Introgression Lines

Tritcum urartu (2n = 2x = 14, AuAu), the A genome donor of wheat, is an important source for new genetic variation for wheat improvement due to its high photosynthetic rate and disease resistance. By facilitating the generation of genome-wide introgressions leading to a variety of different wheat–T. urartu translocation lines, T. urartu can be practically utilised in wheat improvement. Previous studies that have generated such introgression lines have been unable to successfully use cytological methods to detect the presence of T. urartu in these lines. Many have, thus, used a variety of molecular markers with limited success due to the low-density coverage of these markers and time-consuming nature of the techniques rendering them unsuitable for large-scale breeding programs. In this study, we report the generation of a resource of single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) markers, present on a high-throughput SNP genotyping array, that can detect the presence of T. urartu in a hexaploid wheat background making it a potentially valuable tool in wheat pre-breeding programs. A whole genome introgression approach has resulted in the transfer of different chromosome segments from T. urartu into wheat which have then been detected and characterised using these SNP markers. The molecular analysis of these wheat-T. urartu recombinant lines has resulted in the generation of a genetic map of T. urartu containing 368 SNP markers, spread across all seven chromosomes of T. urartu. Comparative analysis of the genetic map of T. urartu and the physical map of the hexaploid wheat genome showed that synteny between the two species is highly conserved at the macro-level and confirmed the presence of the 4/5 translocation in T. urartu also present in the A genome of wheat. A panel of 17 wheat-T. urartu recombinant lines, which consisted of introgressed segments that covered the whole genome of T. urartu, were also selected for self-fertilisation to provide a germplasm resource for future trait analysis. This valuable resource of high-density molecular markers specifically designed for detecting wild relative chromosomes and a panel of stable interspecific introgression lines will greatly enhance the efficiency of wheat improvement through wild relative introgressions

Energyscapes: linking the energy system and ecosystem services in real landscapes

The drive for sustainable energy production is leading to increased deployment of land based renewables. Although there is public support, in principle, for renewable energy at a national level, major resistance to renewable energy technologies often occurs at a local level. Within this context, it can be useful to consider the "energyscape" which we initially define as the complex spatial and temporal combination of the supply, demand and infrastructure for energy within a landscape. By starting with a consideration of the energyscape, we can then consider the positive and negative interactions with other ecosystem services within a particular landscape. This requires a multidisciplinary systems-approach that uses existing knowledge of landscapes, energy options, and the different perspectives of stakeholders. The approach is examined in relation to pilot case-study comprising a 155 km2 catchment in Bedfordshire, England

Slow development of woodland vegetation and bird communities during 33 years of passive rewilding in open farmland

Passive rewilding is a potential tool for expanding woodland cover and restoring biodiversity by abandoning land management and allowing natural vegetation succession to occur. Land can be abandoned to passive rewilding deliberately or due to socio-economic change. Despite abandonment being a major driver of land use change, few have studied the long-term outcomes for vegetation and biodiversity in Western Europe. Studies are also biased towards sites that are close to seed sources and favourable to woodland colonisation. In this case-study, we reconstruct a time series of passive rewilding over 33 years on 25 ha of former farmland that had been subject to soil tipping, far from woodland seed sources. Natural colonisation by shrubs and trees was surveyed at three points during the time series, using field mapping and lidar. Breeding birds were surveyed at three time points, and compared with surveys from nearby farmland. Results showed that natural colonisation of woody vegetation was slow, with open grassland dominating the old fields for two decades, and small wetlands developing spontaneously. After 33 years, thorny shrub thickets covered 53% of the site and former hedgerows became subsumed or degraded, but trees remained scarce. However, the resulting habitat mosaic of shrubland, grassland and wetland supported a locally distinctive bird community. Farmland bird species declined as passive rewilding progressed, but this was countered by relatively more wetland birds and an increase in woodland birds, particularly songbirds, compared to nearby farmland. Alongside biodiversity benefits, shrubland establishment by passive rewilding could potentially provide ecosystem services via abundant blossom resources for pollinators, and recreation and berry-gathering opportunities for people. Although closed-canopy woodland remained a distant prospect even after 33 years, the habitat mosaic arising from passive rewilding could be considered a valuable outcome, which could contribute to nature recovery and provision of ecosystem services

Development and validation of an exome-based SNP marker set for identification of the St, J ^r and J ^vs genomes of Thinopyrym intermedium in a wheat background

Thinopyrum intermedium (2n = 6x = 42, StJrJvs) is one of the most promising reservoirs of useful genes including tolerance to abiotic stresses, perenniality and disease resistance not available in the cultivated bread wheat. The transfer of genetic diversity from wild species to wheat offers valuable responses to the effects of climate change. The new array-based single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker technology provides cheap and easy-to-use molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS) in wheat breeding programmes. Here, we focus on the generation of a new chromosome-specific SNP marker set that can be used to characterize and identify the Th. intermedium chromosomes or chromosome segments transferred into wheat. A progressive investigation of marker development was conducted using 187 various newly developed wheat–Th. intermedium introgression lines and the Axiom® Wheat-Relative Genotyping array. We employed molecular cytogenetic techniques to clarify the genome constitution of the Th. intermedium parental lines and validated 634 chromosome-specific SNPs. Our data confirmed the allohexaploid nature of Th. intermedium and demonstrated that the St genome-specific GISH signal and markers are present at the centromeric regions of chromosomes 1Jvs, 2Jvs, 3Jvs and 7Jvs. The SNP markers presented here will be introduced into current wheat improvement programmes, offering a significant speed-up in wheat breeding and making it possible to deal with the transfer of the full genetic potential of Th. intermedium into wheat

Exploiting the genome of Thinopyrum elongatum to expand the gene pool of hexaploid wheat

© 2020, The Author(s). Key message: One hundred and thirty four introgressions from Thinopyrum elongatum have been transferred into a wheat background and were characterised using 263 SNP markers. Abstract: Species within the genus Thinopyrum have been shown to carry genetic variation for a very wide range of traits including biotic and abiotic stresses and quality. Research has shown that one of the species within this genus, Th. elongatum, has a close relationship with the genomes of wheat making it a highly suitable candidate to expand the gene pool of wheat. Homoeologous recombination, in the absence of the Ph1 gene, has been exploited to transfer an estimated 134 introgressions from Th. elongatum into a hexaploid wheat background. The introgressions were detected and characterised using 263 single nucleotide polymorphism markers from a 35K Axiom® Wheat-Relative Genotyping Array, spread across seven linkage groups and validated using genomic in situ hybridisation. The genetic map had a total length of 187.8cM and the average chromosome length was 26.8cM. Comparative analyses of the genetic map of Th. elongatum and the physical map of hexaploid wheat confirmed previous work that indicated good synteny at the macro-level, although Th. elongatum does not contain the 4A/5A/7B translocation found in wheat