Effets des variations démographiques sur la structure génétique de populations, dans le cadre d'une maladie émergente

The demography and genetic structure of a population are closely linked. The study of this interplay is crucial, especially for organisms with frequent demographic fluctuations such as pathogen species responsible for emerging diseases. Classical population genetics models have been used to explore this link for simplified demographic processes. In this thesis, I further investigate the interplay between demography and genetic evolution in pathogen species that display complex life cycles. For this purpose, I focus on two ecological systems that strongly deviate from demographic equilibrium, each of which allows for realistic modelling assumptions. The first ecological system focuses on a major selection event with the temporal dimension being of prime importance. The second system reports recurrent colonisation events in which the spatial aspect is decisive.In the first part, I study an event of resistance overcoming by a pathogen population. Firstly, a modelling approach is used to establish the conditions for observing resistance overcoming and to identify the determinants of resistance durability. The results highlight the antagonistic effect of the proportion of resistant hosts deployed in the agricultural landscape, which decreases the probability of overcoming but increases the speed of overcoming when it occurs. Secondly, this model is implemented to account for genetic evolution at neutral loci. The results identify three demographic scenarios associated with distinct genetic signatures during resistance overcoming: 1) small variations in population sizes and small changes in genetic structures, 2) a strong founder event on the resistant host that in turn creates a genetic structure on the susceptible host, and 3) an evolutionary rescue event that results in a strong founder event on the resistant host, preceded by a bottleneck on the susceptible host. Finally, this theoretical framework of demogenetic analysis is applied to empirical data to infer the parameters underlying the overcoming of resistant RMlp7 poplars by the pathogen Melampsora larici-populina. Two parameters are particularly well estimated and the inferred values are in agreement with our biological knowledge: a high proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape (more than 80%) and an initial frequency of virulent alleles in the pathogen population between 5 and 10%.In the second part, I study colonisation and its genetic consequences. These analyses focus on the recurrent invasion of the Durance River valley by Melampsora larici-populina. Firstly, a mechanistic-statistical model is coupled to epidemiological data to infer the parameters underlying the pathogen's expansion dynamics. This approach shows that colonisation results from frequent long-distance dispersal events, with an average dispersal distance of more than two kilometres. Secondly, the characterisation of several annual colonisation events highlights a similar genetic structure which amplitude however varies greatly between years. Two extremes are identified: in 2011, strong conservation of the initial genetic diversity along the colonised domain; in 2004, rapid erosion of genetic diversity. The inter-annual variations in these structures can be explained by variations in the frequency of long-distance dispersal events.This work highlights the importance of contextualised models that take into account demogenetic variations for a better understanding of biological systems. The information obtained is then crucial for developing relevant control strategies against pathogen populations responsible for emerging diseases.La démographie et la structure génétique d'une population sont étroitement liées. L’étude de ce lien est cruciale, ce d’autant plus pour les organismes présentant des fluctuations démographiques fréquentes tels que les agents pathogènes responsables de maladies émergentes. Les modèles classiques de génétique des populations ont permis d’explorer ce lien pour des processus démographiques simplifiés. Dans cette thèse, j'examine de manière plus approfondie l'interaction entre la démographie et l'évolution génétique de populations d'agents pathogènes aux cycles de vie complexes. Pour ce faire, deux situations écologiques hors équilibre démographique sont étudiées, chacune permettant de poser des hypothèses de modélisation réalistes. L’une présente un évènement majeur de sélection où l’aspect temporel est primordial. L’autre présente des évènements récurrents de colonisation où l’aspect spatial est déterminant.Dans une première partie, je m'intéresse à l'étude d'un contournement de résistance par une population d'agents pathogènes. En premier lieu, une approche par modélisation permet d’établir les conditions d’observation d’un contournement et d'identifier les déterminants de la durabilité d’une résistance. Les résultats mettent en évidence l'effet antagoniste de la proportion d'hôtes résistants déployés dans le paysage agricole, qui diminue la probabilité de contournement mais augmente la vitesse du contournement lorsqu'il a lieu. Ce modèle est ensuite complété par la prise en compte de l'évolution génétique aux loci neutres. Les résultats permettent d'identifier trois scénarios démographiques associés à des signatures génétiques distinctes lors du contournement : 1) de faibles variations de tailles de populations et peu d'évolution de la structure génétique, 2) un événement fondateur fort sur l’hôte résistant qui crée en retour une structure sur l’hôte sensible et 3) un événement de sauvetage évolutif qui se traduit par un fort événement de fondation sur l’hôte résistant, précédé par un goulot d'étranglement sur l’hôte sensible. Enfin, ce cadre théorique d'analyse démogénétique est appliqué à des données empiriques pour inférer les paramètres régissant le contournement des peupliers résistants RMlp7 par l'agent pathogène Melampsora larici-populina. Deux paramètres sont particulièrement bien estimés et en accord avec nos connaissances biologiques : une forte proportion d'hôtes résistants dans le paysage (plus de 80 %) et une fréquence initiale d'allèles virulents dans la population d'agents pathogènes entre 5 et 10 %.Dans une seconde partie, je m'intéresse à l'étude de la colonisation et ses conséquences génétiques. Ces analyses portent sur un système écologique particulier, l’invasion récurrente de la vallée de la Durance par Melampsora larici-populina. Premièrement, un modèle mécanico-statistique est couplé aux données de suivi épidémiologique afin d'inférer les paramètres régissant la dynamique d'expansion de l’agent pathogène. Cette approche montre que la colonisation résulte de fréquents évènements de dispersion à longue distance, pour une distance moyenne de dispersion de plus de 2 km. Deuxièmement, la caractérisation de plusieurs évènements annuels de colonisation montre une structure génétique similaire mais qui varie fortement en amplitude d'une année sur l'autre. Deux extrêmes sont identifiés : en 2011, une forte conservation de la diversité génétique initiale le long du domaine colonisé ; en 2004, une érosion rapide de la diversité génétique. Les variations inter-annuelles de ces structures peuvent être expliquées par des variations dans la fréquence des évènements de dispersion à longue distance.Ce travail permet de discuter l’importance de modèles contextualisés et prenant en compte les variations démogénétiques dans la compréhension des systèmes biologiques. Les informations obtenues sont déterminantes pour le renforcement des stratégies de lutte contre les agents pathogènes responsables de maladies émergentes

Effets des variations démographiques sur la structure génétique de populations, dans le cadre d'une maladie émergente

The demography and genetic structure of a population are closely linked. The study of this interplay is crucial, especially for organisms with frequent demographic fluctuations such as pathogen species responsible for emerging diseases. Classical population genetics models have been used to explore this link for simplified demographic processes. In this thesis, I further investigate the interplay between demography and genetic evolution in pathogen species that display complex life cycles. For this purpose, I focus on two ecological systems that strongly deviate from demographic equilibrium, each of which allows for realistic modelling assumptions. The first ecological system focuses on a major selection event with the temporal dimension being of prime importance. The second system reports recurrent colonisation events in which the spatial aspect is decisive.In the first part, I study an event of resistance overcoming by a pathogen population. Firstly, a modelling approach is used to establish the conditions for observing resistance overcoming and to identify the determinants of resistance durability. The results highlight the antagonistic effect of the proportion of resistant hosts deployed in the agricultural landscape, which decreases the probability of overcoming but increases the speed of overcoming when it occurs. Secondly, this model is implemented to account for genetic evolution at neutral loci. The results identify three demographic scenarios associated with distinct genetic signatures during resistance overcoming: 1) small variations in population sizes and small changes in genetic structures, 2) a strong founder event on the resistant host that in turn creates a genetic structure on the susceptible host, and 3) an evolutionary rescue event that results in a strong founder event on the resistant host, preceded by a bottleneck on the susceptible host. Finally, this theoretical framework of demogenetic analysis is applied to empirical data to infer the parameters underlying the overcoming of resistant RMlp7 poplars by the pathogen Melampsora larici-populina. Two parameters are particularly well estimated and the inferred values are in agreement with our biological knowledge: a high proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape (more than 80%) and an initial frequency of virulent alleles in the pathogen population between 5 and 10%.In the second part, I study colonisation and its genetic consequences. These analyses focus on the recurrent invasion of the Durance River valley by Melampsora larici-populina. Firstly, a mechanistic-statistical model is coupled to epidemiological data to infer the parameters underlying the pathogen's expansion dynamics. This approach shows that colonisation results from frequent long-distance dispersal events, with an average dispersal distance of more than two kilometres. Secondly, the characterisation of several annual colonisation events highlights a similar genetic structure which amplitude however varies greatly between years. Two extremes are identified: in 2011, strong conservation of the initial genetic diversity along the colonised domain; in 2004, rapid erosion of genetic diversity. The inter-annual variations in these structures can be explained by variations in the frequency of long-distance dispersal events.This work highlights the importance of contextualised models that take into account demogenetic variations for a better understanding of biological systems. The information obtained is then crucial for developing relevant control strategies against pathogen populations responsible for emerging diseases.La démographie et la structure génétique d'une population sont étroitement liées. L’étude de ce lien est cruciale, ce d’autant plus pour les organismes présentant des fluctuations démographiques fréquentes tels que les agents pathogènes responsables de maladies émergentes. Les modèles classiques de génétique des populations ont permis d’explorer ce lien pour des processus démographiques simplifiés. Dans cette thèse, j'examine de manière plus approfondie l'interaction entre la démographie et l'évolution génétique de populations d'agents pathogènes aux cycles de vie complexes. Pour ce faire, deux situations écologiques hors équilibre démographique sont étudiées, chacune permettant de poser des hypothèses de modélisation réalistes. L’une présente un évènement majeur de sélection où l’aspect temporel est primordial. L’autre présente des évènements récurrents de colonisation où l’aspect spatial est déterminant.Dans une première partie, je m'intéresse à l'étude d'un contournement de résistance par une population d'agents pathogènes. En premier lieu, une approche par modélisation permet d’établir les conditions d’observation d’un contournement et d'identifier les déterminants de la durabilité d’une résistance. Les résultats mettent en évidence l'effet antagoniste de la proportion d'hôtes résistants déployés dans le paysage agricole, qui diminue la probabilité de contournement mais augmente la vitesse du contournement lorsqu'il a lieu. Ce modèle est ensuite complété par la prise en compte de l'évolution génétique aux loci neutres. Les résultats permettent d'identifier trois scénarios démographiques associés à des signatures génétiques distinctes lors du contournement : 1) de faibles variations de tailles de populations et peu d'évolution de la structure génétique, 2) un événement fondateur fort sur l’hôte résistant qui crée en retour une structure sur l’hôte sensible et 3) un événement de sauvetage évolutif qui se traduit par un fort événement de fondation sur l’hôte résistant, précédé par un goulot d'étranglement sur l’hôte sensible. Enfin, ce cadre théorique d'analyse démogénétique est appliqué à des données empiriques pour inférer les paramètres régissant le contournement des peupliers résistants RMlp7 par l'agent pathogène Melampsora larici-populina. Deux paramètres sont particulièrement bien estimés et en accord avec nos connaissances biologiques : une forte proportion d'hôtes résistants dans le paysage (plus de 80 %) et une fréquence initiale d'allèles virulents dans la population d'agents pathogènes entre 5 et 10 %.Dans une seconde partie, je m'intéresse à l'étude de la colonisation et ses conséquences génétiques. Ces analyses portent sur un système écologique particulier, l’invasion récurrente de la vallée de la Durance par Melampsora larici-populina. Premièrement, un modèle mécanico-statistique est couplé aux données de suivi épidémiologique afin d'inférer les paramètres régissant la dynamique d'expansion de l’agent pathogène. Cette approche montre que la colonisation résulte de fréquents évènements de dispersion à longue distance, pour une distance moyenne de dispersion de plus de 2 km. Deuxièmement, la caractérisation de plusieurs évènements annuels de colonisation montre une structure génétique similaire mais qui varie fortement en amplitude d'une année sur l'autre. Deux extrêmes sont identifiés : en 2011, une forte conservation de la diversité génétique initiale le long du domaine colonisé ; en 2004, une érosion rapide de la diversité génétique. Les variations inter-annuelles de ces structures peuvent être expliquées par des variations dans la fréquence des évènements de dispersion à longue distance.Ce travail permet de discuter l’importance de modèles contextualisés et prenant en compte les variations démogénétiques dans la compréhension des systèmes biologiques. Les informations obtenues sont déterminantes pour le renforcement des stratégies de lutte contre les agents pathogènes responsables de maladies émergentes

Impact of ploidy and pathogen life cycle on resistance durability

The breeding of resistant hosts based on the gene-for-gene interaction is crucial to address epidemics of plant pathogens in agroecosystems. Resistant host deployment strategies are developed and studied worldwide to decrease the probability of resistance breakdown and increase the resistance durability in various pathosystems. A major component of deployment strategies is the proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape. However, the impact of this proportion on resistance durability remains unclear for diploid pathogens with complex life cycles. In this study, we modelled pathogen population dynamics and genetic evolution at the virulence locus to assess the impact of the ploidy (haploid or diploid) and the pathogen’s life cycle (with or without host alternation) on resistance durability. Ploidy has a strong impact on evolutionary trajectories, with much greater stochasticity and delayed times of resistance breakdown for diploids. This result emphasises the importance of genetic drift in this system: as the virulent allele is recessive, positive selection on resistant hosts only applies to homozygous (virulent) individuals, which may lead to population collapse at low frequencies of the virulent allele. We also observed differences in the effect of host deployment depending on the pathogen’s life cycle. With host alternation, the probability that the pathogen population collapses strongly increases with the proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape. Therefore, resistance breakdown events occurring at high proportions of resistant hosts frequently amount to evolutionary rescue. Last, life cycles correspond to two selection regimes: without host alternation (soft selection) the resistance breakdown is mainly driven by the migration rate. Conversely, host alternation (hard selection) resembles an all-or-nothing game, with stochastic trajectories caused by the recurrent allele redistributions on the alternate host.ISSN:2804-387

Impact of ploidy and pathogen life cycle on resistance durability

International audienceThe breeding of resistant hosts based on the gene-for-gene interaction is crucial to address epidemics of plant pathogens in agroecosystems. Resistant host deployment strategies are developed and studied worldwide to decrease the probability of resistance breakdown and increase the resistance durability in various pathosystems. A major component of deployment strategies is the proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape. However, the impact of this proportion on resistance durability remains unclear for diploid pathogens with complex life cycles. In this study, we modelled pathogen population dynamics and genetic evolution at the virulence locus to assess the impact of the ploidy (haploid or diploid) and the pathogen's life cycle (with or without host alternation) on resistance durability. Ploidy has a strong impact on evolutionary trajectories, with much greater stochasticity and delayed times of resistance breakdown for diploids. This result emphasises the importance of genetic drift in this system: as the virulent allele is recessive, positive selection on resistant hosts only applies to homozygous (virulent) individuals, which may lead to population collapse at low frequencies of the virulent allele. We also observed differences in the effect of host deployment depending on the pathogen's life cycle. With host alternation, the probability that the pathogen population collapses strongly increases with the proportion of resistant hosts in the landscape. Therefore, resistance breakdown events occurring at high proportions of resistant hosts frequently amount to evolutionary rescue. Last, life cycles correspond to two selection regimes: without host alternation (soft selection) the resistance breakdown is mainly driven by the migration rate. Conversely, host alternation (hard selection) resembles an all-or-nothing game, with stochastic trajectories caused by the recurrent allele redistributions on the alternate host

Genetic diversity in British populations of Taxus baccata L.: is the seedbank collection representative of the genetic variation in the wild?

Seed banking is an invaluable tool in plant conservation, both as an archive and a source of genetic variation. Despite the increasing focus on the validation of sampling strategies, few studies have empirically related diversity in seed bank collections with variation in wild-provenance populations. By using a set of nuclear microsatellites, we investigated genetic diversity in British populations of Taxus baccata (European yew tree). We used our findings as a baseline for the quantification of genetic diversity captured in the germplasm collections maintained by the Millennium Seed Bank (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), in terms of allelic richness and allelic capture. We observed that genetic differentiation in wild populations of yew is compatible with highly effective gene flow, with no geographic patterns. Heterozygosity is lower than expected for a dioecious obligate outbreeder. Seed collections are representative of wild populations in terms of allelic capture, including rare and locally common variants, indicating that the current sampling protocol implemented by the UK National Tree Seed Project is appropriate. Specific sampling strategies might be improved by including more populations at the edge of the range and in remote localities, even at the expense of contiguous populations. Our methods may be applied to evaluate allelic capture in other germplasm collections for which a baseline exists, i.e. in which genetic diversity in the wild-provenance populations is known. Our recommendations related to sampling strategies can be extended to other tree species with continuous distributions and effective gene flow

Investigation of Genetic Relationships Between Hanseniaspora Species Found in Grape Musts Revealed Interspecific Hybrids With Dynamic Genome Structures

Hanseniaspora, a predominant yeast genus of grape musts, includes sister species recently reported as fast evolving. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic relationships between the four most closely related species, at the population level. A multi-locus sequence typing strategy based on five markers was applied on 107 strains, confirming the clear delineation of species H. uvarum, H. opuntiae, H. guilliermondii, and H. pseudoguilliermondii. Huge variations were observed in the level of intraspecific nucleotide diversity, and differences in heterozygosity between species indicate different life styles. No clear population structure was detected based on geographical or substrate origins. Instead, H. guilliermondii strains clustered into two distinct groups, which may reflect a recent step toward speciation. Interspecific hybrids were detected between H. opuntiae and H. pseudoguilliermondii. Their characterization using flow cytometry, karyotypes and genome sequencing showed different genome structures in different ploidy contexts: allodiploids, allotriploids, and allotetraploids. Subculturing of an allotriploid strain revealed chromosome loss equivalent to one chromosome set, followed by an auto-diploidization event, whereas another auto-diploidized tetraploid showed a segmental duplication. Altogether, these results suggest that Hanseniaspora genomes are not only fast evolving but also highly dynamic

Improving the design of sustainable crop protection strategies thanks to population genetics concepts

Cropping genetically resistant plants allows to control pathogen populations while substantially reducing chemical inputs. However, resistances are often quickly defeated by pathogens. In this context, how can sustainable crop protection be achieved? This question has shaped the debate about the durability of genetic resistances in agriculture for decades, and, despite active research efforts, has not been satisfactorily answered yet. Here we demonstrate from a bibliography analysis that the research field of resistance durability evolved into two non-overlapping directions: (i) the subfield of 'epidemiology and evolution', which aims to forecast and explain pathogen population dynamics; (ii) the subfield of 'molecular interactions', which studies the molecular processes involved in the overcoming of resistance and in the dialogue between plants and pathogens. After reviewing briefly these two subfields and the gap between the corresponding research communities, we propose strategies to merge these approaches into one by using the concepts of population genetics. Ultimately, such new eco-evolutionary studies could be used to determine the best strategy for the deployment of genetically resistant cultivars by integrating, from gene to landscape, all relevant and contextual biological knowledge into sound theoretical models

: [Oral presentation]

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Association of two co-occurring mutations at the AvrMlp7 avirulence locus in poplar rust during the breakdown of RMlp7 resistance gene: [Poster]

International audienceThe deployment of plant varieties carrying resistance (R) genes exerts strong selection pressures towards pathogen populations. Several studies reported the rapid evolution of avirulence (Avr) genes to escape R-mediated plant immunity and identified a variety of mechanisms leading to virulence. The poplar rust fungus Melampsora larici-populina is the most damaging pathogen of poplars. A major adaptive event occurred in 1994 with the breakdown of RMlp7 resistance gene in poplar in Europe. Population genomics studies identified a locus in the genome of M. larici-populina, which likely corresponds to the AvrMlp7 candidate avirulence gene. We used a population genetics approach combined with dedicated qPCR assays on a comprehensive set of 281 isolates, covering 27 years (encompassing the resistance breakdown event), to validate the candidate locus and to assess its polymorphism. We found two mechanisms, a point mutation and a deletion, that allowed the pathogen to escape RMlp7-mediated resistance. Six diploid genotypes were thus characterized at the candidate locus (three avirulent and three virulent). In addition, a temporal analysis revealed that the two virulence alleles pre-existed (harbored as avirulent heterozygous genotypes) since the early samplings and were found in association (as virulent genotypes) at the time of the resistance breakdown. Our study documented that, in a diploid pathogen, combining virulence determinisms is adaptive

Association of two co-occurring mutations at the AvrMlp7 avirulence locus in poplar rust during the breakdown of RMlp7 resistance gene: [Poster]

International audienceThe deployment of plant varieties carrying resistance (R) genes exerts strong selection pressures towards pathogen populations. Several studies reported the rapid evolution of avirulence (Avr) genes to escape R-mediated plant immunity and identified a variety of mechanisms leading to virulence. The poplar rust fungus Melampsora larici-populina is the most damaging pathogen of poplars. A major adaptive event occurred in 1994 with the breakdown of RMlp7 resistance gene in poplar in Europe. Population genomics studies identified a locus in the genome of M. larici-populina, which likely corresponds to the AvrMlp7 candidate avirulence gene. We used a population genetics approach combined with dedicated qPCR assays on a comprehensive set of 281 isolates, covering 27 years (encompassing the resistance breakdown event), to validate the candidate locus and to assess its polymorphism. We found two mechanisms, a point mutation and a deletion, that allowed the pathogen to escape RMlp7-mediated resistance. Six diploid genotypes were thus characterized at the candidate locus (three avirulent and three virulent). In addition, a temporal analysis revealed that the two virulence alleles pre-existed (harbored as avirulent heterozygous genotypes) since the early samplings and were found in association (as virulent genotypes) at the time of the resistance breakdown. Our study documented that, in a diploid pathogen, combining virulence determinisms is adaptive