New insights into chimpanzees, tools, and termites from the Congo Basin.

abstract: The tool-using behaviors of wild chimpanzees comprise the most impressive assemblages and flexible repertoires of nonhuman material culture. We expand knowledge of the breadth and complexity of tool use in this species by providing the first descriptions of the form and function of two distinct tool sets used by chimpanzees in preying upon termites within the forests of the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. Further, we report the first application of remote video monitoring technology to record wild chimpanzee tool-using behavior. Based on tool assemblages recovered at termite nests, we hypothesized that chimpanzees were regularly visiting two forms of termite nests and using specific tools to extract termite prey depending on the structure of the nest. Six months of continuous remote video monitoring at six termite nests confirmed that chimpanzees use a tool set to puncture and fish at subterranean termite nests and another tool set to perforate and fish at epigeal (aboveground) nests. Our findings of strict adherence to tool forms at different nest types, tool material selectivity, repeated visits to nests with reusable wood tool assemblages, and differences in material culture between communities have broad implications for our understanding of the ecological and cultural factors that shape hominoid tool use. Although several taxa have been observed using tools, there are few species that demonstrate habitual and complex tool-using behavior. The flexible tool-using repertoires and impressive cumulative assemblages recorded in wild chimpanzee and orangutan populations are unique and often are used in constructing referential models of early hominid technology. Some of these ape populations use stone tools, but most of their tool technology consists of perishable materials that would be invisible in the archaeological record Termite predation provides an excellent opportunity to examine the factors that govern chimpanzee behavioral diversity. Several termite taxa coexist with chimpanzees throughout their range, but extraction of termites from nests with tools is limited to only a subset of studied chimpanzee populations and termite species. Descriptions of termite predation have shown differences between subspecies and between even adjacent communities (Goodal

Floristic and structural distinctness of monodominant Gilbertiodendron dewevrei forest in the western Congo Basin

Background and aims – The forests of the Congo Basin contain high levels of biodiversity, and are globally important for carbon storage. In order to design effective conservation strategies, and to accurately model carbon stocks, a fine-scale understanding of the different forest types that make up this forest block is needed. Monodominant Gilbertiodendron dewevrei forest covers large areas of the Congo Basin, but it is currently unclear whether it is sufficiently distinct from adjacent mixed terre firme forest to warrant separate treatment for conservation planning and carbon calculations. This study aimed to compare the structure and diversity of monodominant and mixed forest, and ask whether there is a unique vascular plant community associated with G. dewevrei forest.Material and methods – We utilised a combination of plot data and herbarium specimens collected in the Sangha Trinational (a network of protect areas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Republic of Congo). Plot inventories were used to compare G. dewevrei forest and mixed forest for stem density, basal area, above ground biomass, stem size distribution, species diversity, and species composition. In addition, a database of 3,557 herbarium specimens was used to identify species of vascular plant that are associated with G. dewevrei forest.Key results – Gilbertiodendron dewevrei forest is distinct in both structure and species composition from mixed forest. Gilbertiodendron dewevrei forest has a lower stem number (of trees ≥ 10 cm), but a greater proportion of larger trees (> 70 cm), suggesting higher carbon stocks. The species composition is distinct from mixed forest, with 56 species of vascular plant significantly associated with G. dewevrei forest

A Legacy of Low-Impact Logging does not Elevate Prevalence of Potentially Pathogenic Protozoa in Free-Ranging Gorillas and Chimpanzees in the Republic of Congo: Logging and Parasitism in African Apes

Many studies have examined the long-term effects of selective logging on the abundance and diversity of free-ranging primates. Logging is known to reduce the abundance of some primate species through associated hunting and the loss of food trees for frugivores; however, the potential role of pathogens in such primate population declines is largely unexplored. Selective logging results in a suite of alterations in host ecology and forest structure that may alter pathogen dynamics in resident wildlife populations. In addition, environmental pollution with human fecal material may present a risk for wildlife infections with zoonotic protozoa, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. To better understand this interplay, we compared patterns of infection with these potentially pathogenic protozoa in sympatric western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the undisturbed Goualougo Triangle of Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and the adjacent previously logged Kabo Concession in northern Republic of Congo. No Cryptosporidium infections were detected in any of the apes examined and prevalence of infection with Giardia was low (3.73% overall) and did not differ between logged and undisturbed forest for chimpanzees or gorillas. These results provide a baseline for prevalence of these protozoa in forest-dwelling African apes and suggest that low-intensity logging may not result in long-term elevated prevalence of potentially pathogenic protozoa

Les grands singes et le FSC: Mise en oeuvre de pratiques d’exploitation favorables aux grands singes dans les concessions forestières en Afrique centrale

La survie des grands singes est de plus en plus incertaine en Afrique. Plusieurs facteurs comme la chasse, la disparition des milieux naturels et les maladies infectieuses se conjuguent et entrainent une diminution spectaculaire des populations. Ce déclin se poursuit alors que les grands singes africains sont des espèces de préoccupation internationale pour la conservation et que des efforts concertés ont porté depuis les années 1980 sur la création de réseaux d'aires protégées, l'élaboration de plans d'action pour la conservation et l'établissement d'accords politiques. Selon les prévisions, les tendances actuelles se poursuivront en l'absence de mesures immédiates et majeures d'atténuation des menaces. La disparition d'une espèce de grands singes, quelle qu'elle soit, serait une immense perte en termes de biodiversité africaine, de rôle écologique et de notre patrimoine commun d'évolution

Pan troglodytes ssp. troglodytes (errata version published in 2016)

Assessment Information: Pan troglodytes troglodytes has a very large geographic range (over 700,000 km2) and a relatively large population size, currently estimated at about 140,000 individuals (Strindberget al. in prep). However, this subspecies has experienced a significant population reduction since the 1970s. Between 1983 and 2000, the country of Gabon lost half its great ape population to poaching and disease, at an annual rate of decline 4% (calculated from Walsh et al. 2003). A more recent study examined nest survey data collected between 2003 and 2013 across the entire range of the taxon and created a predictive model to map Central Chimpanzee density and distribution (Strindberget al. in prep). Although the results show no statistically significant decline during those 10 years,Central Chimpanzee populations remain highly vulnerable to poaching and disease. Due to their slow life history and a generation time estimated to be 25 years, Chimpanzee populations cannot sustain high mortality levels, whether disease-induced or caused by humans. Given the scale of the poaching problem across Central Africa, this taxon is likely to be experiencing declines significant in terms of the population status, which we do not have the statistical power to detect. It is suspected that this reduction will continue for the next 30 to 40 years due to illegal hunting and expansion of the commercial bushmeat trade, and to habitat loss and degradation occurring at an increasing rate as a result of expanding human activities. The causes of the reduction, although largely understood, have certainly not ceased and are not easily reversible. The predicted continuation of the population decline is a precautionary approach based on the rapidly-increasing human population density in the region, and the expansion of land clearing for industrial-scale agricultural plantations, which requires the clearcutting of forest and is likely to accelerate in the next two to three decades. The effects of climate change will also become increasingly evident. At the same time, the threat of emerging infectious diseases is ongoing; there is, for example, evidence that Ebolavirus will continue to spread (Walshet al. 2005), which would have devastating consequences for Central African great ape populations. At a conservative rate of loss of 1% each year, the population reduction over three generations (75 years) from 1975-2050 is likely to exceed 50%, hence qualifying Central Chimpanzees as Endangered under criterion A

Great apes and FSC: Implementing 'ape friendly' practices in Central Africa's logging concessions

First paragraph: The long-term survival of Africa's great apes has become increasingly uncertain. Dramatic declines in their population numbers have resulted from a combination of factors, including hunting, habitat loss and infectious disease. Although African apes are species of international concern, and despite concerted efforts since the 1980s to create protected area networks, develop conservation action plans and establish policy agreements, their populations continue to decrease. Future projections indicate that this trend will continue unless significant measures to reduce existing threats are taken immediately. The permanent disappearance of any ape species from the wild would be a huge loss to African biodiversity, to the important ecological function they play, and to our shared evolutionary heritage.  Also available at: https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/1037

The complex Y-chromosomal history of gorillas

Studies of the evolutionary relationships among gorilla populations using autosomal and mitochondrial sequences suggest that male-mediated gene flow may have been important in the past, but data on the Y-chromosomal relationships among the gorilla subspecies are limited. Here, we genotyped blood and noninvasively collected fecal samples from 12 captives and 257 wild male gorillas of known origin representing all four subspecies (Gorilla gorilla gorilla, G. g. diehli, G. beringei beringei, and G. b. graueri) at 10 Y-linked microsatellite loci resulting in 102 unique Y-haplotypes for 224 individuals. We found that western lowland gorilla (G. g. gorilla) haplotypes were consistently more diverse than any other subspecies for all measures of diversity and comprised several genetically distinct groups. However, these did not correspond to geographical proximity and some closely related haplotypes were found several hundred kilometers apart. Similarly, our broad sampling of eastern gorillas revealed that mountain (G. b. beringei) and Grauer's (G. b. graueri) gorilla Y-chromosomal haplotypes did not form distinct clusters. These observations suggest structure in the ancestral population with subsequent mixing of differentiated haplotypes by male dispersal for western lowland gorillas, and postisolation migration or incomplete lineage sorting due to short divergence times for eastern gorillas

Zoonotic origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium malariae from African apes

The human parasite Plasmodium malariae has relatives infecting African apes (Plasmodium rodhaini) and New World monkeys (Plasmodium brasilianum), but its origins remain unknown. Using a novel approach to characterise P. malariae-related sequences in wild and captive African apes, we found that this group comprises three distinct lineages, one of which represents a previously unknown, highly divergent species infecting chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas across central Africa. A second ape-derived lineage is much more closely related to the third, human-infective lineage P. malariae, but exhibits little evidence of genetic exchange with it, and so likely represents a separate species. Moreover, the levels and nature of genetic polymorphisms in P. malariae indicate that it resulted from the zoonotic transmission of an African ape parasite, reminiscent of the origin of P. falciparum. In contrast, P. brasilianum falls within the radiation of human P. malariae, and thus reflects a recent anthroponosis.Peer Reviewe