Environmental analysis of building shallow foundations: The influence of prefabrication, typology, and structural design codes

The design of building foundations has usually been based on tradition, local practice, experience, and structural design codes. Safety is invariably considered the main factor and environmental criteria (or, in general, sustainability) is seldom given due consideration. However, similar safety indicators can be achieved with different variables and a minimum safety factor must always be ensured. The main objective of this study is, from an environmental perspective, to assess the influence of the construction system (cast-in-situ or precast), foundation type (rigid or flexible), and structural code (EC-2 or EHE-08) in the case of a concrete shallow foundation (CSF), using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Applying this methodology, the materials (concrete and steel) yielded the highest impacts in all categories, at around 95% for cast-in-situ CSFs and at around 85% for precast CSFs, both in relation to global warming. Consequently, optimization of the amount of these materials is crucial when considering the particular variables selected in this study. The results showed that cast-in-situ and flexible CSFs at moderately shallow depths (and therefore with less steel reinforcement) and precast CSFs with considerable reductions in concrete volumes (due to sloped shapes) had lower environmental impacts. In addition, cast-in-situ CSFs constructed in accordance with the EHE-08 structural code showed lower impacts, while precast CSFs complying with the EC-2 code were environmentally preferable. However, a specific study might be required for specific factors in each case (loads, soil type, structural settlement, among others). Relevant environmental effects associated with the three variables should therefore be given specific consideration in the development of structural design codes and future constructions.Postprint (author's final draft

Applying nutrient dynamics to adjust the nutrient-water balance in hydroponic crops. A case study with open hydroponic tomato crops from Barcelona

Background:Global food production systems generate impacts such as eutrophication, caused by nutrient run-offfrom agricultural exploitations and exacerbated by climate change. Hydroponic cultivation methods arecommon in Mediterranean areas, although there is a gap in the literature with regard to their study. This studyaims tofill that gap, by assessing nutrientflows in hydroponic crops.Results:The results showed that most of the nutrients were drained with the leachates (51% on average), afigurewhich could be lower, if the nutrient supply were adjusted to the needs of the plants or if (closed hydroponic)nutrient recirculation were implemented, without compromising the nutrient uptake of the plant. Moreover, thestudy revealed that a significant quantity of nutrients was retained in the substrate (perlite) during the crop,reaching average values of 5% of incoming calcium, 6% of nitrogen, and 7% of phosphorus. In the case ofphosphorus and calcium, a regression model is presented for the estimation of their retention in hydroponiccrops.Conclusions:Although further studies will be needed to confirm the above trends, the study makes a significantcontribution to understanding the metabolism of nutrients in hydroponic crops and tofiner adjustments of thenutrient balance.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Environmental effects of using different construction codes applied to reinforced concrete beam designs based on Model Code 2010 and Spanish Standard EHE-08

Assuming specific behavior models, the variety of design codes currently used for the design of concrete beams inevitably results in different solutions, ensuring service during the expected lifetime with a maximum functional quality and safety. However, from a sustainable design perspective, such differences may have remarkable environmental impacts. This paper analyses if the approach of the newest design code, i.e., the Model Code, leads to a reduction in resource consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) over the life cycle of concrete beams. To do so, a comparative analysis of the environmental impact of concrete beams was carried out depending on the reference code used for their design (i.e., EHE-08 or Model Code). The results show that reducing the amount of reinforcing steel is essential to minimize the life cycle environmental impacts of concrete beams. Every country may have its own design codes and, thus, the reinforcing steel use can vary for structures subjected to the same loads and with equivalent structural reliability. Hence, regulations play a key role in the sustainability of construction assets. Conclusions depend on the beam’s length (L), height (h) and characteristic compressive strength (fck). For short beams (4 m), the greater the h, the greater the reinforcement difference between the two codes. With regard to beams with L = 8 m, these differences can lead to varying steel and GHG savings, e.g., up to 5.0 % with MC-2010 (h = 0.6 m and fck = 35 MPa), almost 40 % with EHE – 08 (h = 0.6 m and 35 MPa < fck = 50 MPa) and more than 30 % with MC-2010 (h = 1.0 m).. For long beams (L = 12.0 m), steel consumption is 0.3 % to 19 % lower when the beam is designed with EHE-08, and this difference decreases as fck increases.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Assessing the energetic and environmental impacts of the operation and maintenance of spanish sewer networks from a life-cycle perspective

The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-0958-2The environmental impacts resulting from sewer networks are best analysed from a life-cycle perspective to integrate the energy requirements into the infrastructure design. The energy requirements for pumping wastewater depend on the configuration of the city (e.g., climate, population, length of the sewer, topography, etc.). This study analyses and models the effect of such site-specific features on energy consumption and related effects in a sample of Spanish cities. The results show that the average annual energy used by sewers (6.4 kWh/capita and 0.014 kWh/m3 of water flow) must not be underestimated because they may require up to 50 % of the electricity needs of a typical treatment plant in terms of consumption per capita. In terms of Global Warming Potential, pumping results in an average of 2.3 kg CO2eq./capita. A significant positive relationship was demonstrated between the kWh consumed and the length of the sewer and between other factors such as the population and wastewater production. In addition, Atlantic cities can consume 5 times as much energy as Mediterranean or Subtropical regions. A similar trend was shown in coastal cities. Finally, a simple predictive model of the electricity consumption was presented that considers the analysed parameters.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Environmental assessment of water supply: cities and vertical farming buildings

S'espera que la sostenibilitat de les xarxes de subministrament d'aigua sigui un tema important en un futur pròxim a causa de la falta d'accés a l'aigua en àrees específiques, al creixement de les ciutats i a la renovació de xarxes velles. En aquest sentit, analitzar a nivell ambiental aquest sistema és clau per planificar futures xarxes, la qual cosa pot prevenir impactes ambientals significatius. A més, l'eficiència en l'ús de l'aigua a les ciutats és una altra qüestió important i cal analitzar els nous usos urbans de l'aigua, com l'agricultura. Aquest és el cas de l'agricultura vertical, que consisteix en la integració de sistemes agrícoles en edificis. Tot i que aquests sistemes de producció d'aliments urbans poden augmentar la demanda d'aigua a les ciutats, representen una oportunitat per reduir el consum i el transport d'aigua relacionats amb l'agricultura a nivell regional. Investigacions prèvies sobre xarxes d'abastament d'aigua es centren en analitzar estudis de casos específics a nivell municipal o regional, mostrant resultats molt diferents. Per tant, es requereix una avaluació integral del sistema des d'una perspectiva general per entendre quins són els factors clau que afecten els impactes ambientals de les xarxes. A escala edifici, la millora de l'eficiència en l'ús de l'aigua pot prevenir impactes ambientals significatius al llarg del cicle urbà de l'aigua, especialment per a nous usos de l'aigua com l'agricultura vertical. En aquest context, estudis anteriors han discutit el potencial d'aquests sistemes o implementat anàlisis basades en dades teòriques. No obstant això, encara falta manca avaluar cultius realitzats en un casos d’estudi reals. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu aprofundir en aquestes àrees de coneixement analitzant el sistema urbà des de l'escala ciutat a alternatives locals específiques i busca respondre a les següents preguntes: (i) Quins són els principals factors que afecten els impactes ambientals de les xarxes d'abastament d'aigua a les ciutats i quines millores s'han d'implementar? - Escala ciutat (ii) Com d'eficaces són les tecnologies per a l'estalvi de l'aigua utilitzades a nivell d'edifici en les zones urbanes? - Escala edifici (iii) Els hivernacles integrats en coberta són una alternativa eficient i sostenible per a la producció d'aliments a les ciutats? - Alternativa específica Aquesta tesi contribueix a un major enteniment dels principals factors que influeixen en els impactes de les xarxes d'abastament d'aigua i aporta eines útils per a l'anàlisi ambiental d'aquests sistemes. Els planificadors urbans i els gestors de xarxes poden utilitzar els resultats per planificar xarxes sostenibles. A més, la investigació experimental realitzada en edificis innovadors amb tecnologies d'estalvi d'aigua i agricultura vertical demostra la viabilitat d'aquests sistemes avançats i destaca la importància d'optimitzar l'ús dels recursos. Investigacions futures en aquestes àrees de coneixement podrien centrar-se en els següents temes: • Avaluar l'ecoeficiència de la construcció de xarxes d'abastament d'aigua. • Implementació d'estudis estadístics addicionals sobre el funcionament de les xarxes d'abastament d'aigua. • Desenvolupar nous sistemes urbans que implementin el nexe aigua-energia-aliments per integrar la producció d'aliments i els problemes d'eficiència en l'ús de l'aigua. • Explorar tot el potencial dels i-RTGs i analitzar el sistema que conrea diferents cultius.Se espera que la sostenibilidad de las redes de suministro de agua sea un tema importante en un futuro próximo debido a la falta de acceso al agua en áreas específicas, al crecimiento de las ciudades y a la renovación de viejas redes. En este sentido, analizar a nivel ambiental este sistema es clave para planificar futuras redes, lo cual puede prevenir impactos ambientales significativos. Además, la eficiencia en el uso del agua en las ciudades es otra cuestión importante y es necesario analizar los nuevos usos urbanos del agua, como la agricultura. Este es el caso de la agricultura vertical, que consiste en la integración de sistemas agrícolas en edificios. Aunque estos sistemas de producción de alimentos urbanos pueden aumentar la demanda de agua en las ciudades, representan una oportunidad para reducir el consumo y el transporte de agua relacionados con la agricultura a nivel regional. Investigaciones previas sobre redes de abastecimiento de agua se centran en analizar estudios de casos específicos a nivel municipal o regional, mostrando resultados muy diferentes. Por lo tanto, se requiere una evaluación integral del sistema desde una perspectiva general para entender cuáles son los factores clave que afectan a los impactos ambientales de las redes. A escala edificio, la mejora de la eficiencia en el uso del agua puede prevenir impactos ambientales significativos a lo largo del ciclo urbano del agua, especialmente para nuevos usos del agua como la agricultura vertical. En este contexto, estudios anteriores han discutido el potencial de estos sistemas o implementado análisis basados en datos teóricos. Sin embargo, todavía falta una evaluación de cultivos realizados en un caso de estudio real. Esta tesis tiene como objetivo profundizar en estas áreas de conocimiento analizando el sistema urbano desde la escala ciudad a alternativas locales específicas y busca responder a las siguientes preguntas: (i) ¿Cuáles son los principales factores que afectan a los impactos ambientales de las redes de abastecimiento de agua en las ciudades y qué mejoras deben implementarse? - Escala ciudad (ii) ¿Cómo de eficaces son las tecnologías para el ahorro del agua utilizadas a nivel de edificios en las zonas urbanas? - Escala edificio (iii) ¿Los invernaderos integrados en cubierta son una alternativa eficiente y sostenible para la producción de alimentos en las ciudades? – Alternativa específica Esta tesis contribuye a un major entendimiento de los principales factores que influyen en los impactos de las redes de abastecimiento de agua y aporta herramientas útiles para el análisis ambiental de estos sistemas. Los planificadores urbanos y los administradores de redes pueden utilizar los resultados para planificar redes sostenibles. Además, la investigación experimental realizada en edificios innovadores con tecnologías de ahorro de agua y agricultura vertical demuestra la viabilidad de estos sistemas avanzados y destaca la importancia de optimizar el uso de los recursos. Investigaciones futuras en estas áreas de conocimiento podrían centrarse en los siguientes temas: • Evaluar la ecoeficiencia de la construcción de redes de abastecimiento de agua. • Implementación de estudios estadísticos adicionales sobre el funcionamiento de las redes de abastecimiento de agua. • Desarrollar nuevos sistemas urbanos que implementen el nexo agua-energía-alimento para integrar la producción de alimentos y los problemas de eficiencia en el uso del agua. Explorar todo el potencial de los i-RTGs y analizar el sistema que cultiva diferentes cultivos.The sustainability of water supply networks is expected to be a major issue in the near future due to the lack of access to water in specific areas, the growth of cities and the refurbishment of old networks. In this sense, analysing the environmental performance of this system is key to planning future networks—this can prevent significant environmental impacts. Moreover, water use efficiency in cities is another important issue and new urban uses for water, such as agriculture, need to be analysed. This is the case for vertical farming, which consists of the integration of agricultural systems in buildings. Although these urban food production systems can increase the demand for water in cities, they represent an opportunity to reduce the water consumption and transport related to agriculture at the regional level. Previous research on water supply networks focus on analysing specific case studies at municipal or regional level, showing very different results. Thus, a comprehensive assessment of the system from a general perspective is required to understand which are the key factors affecting its environmental impacts. At the building scale, improving water efficiency can prevent significant environmental impacts along the urban water cycle, especially for new water uses such as vertical farming. In this context, previous studies have discussed the potential of these systems or implemented analysis based on theoretical data. However, the assessment of crops conducted in a real case study is still lacking. This dissertation aims at contributing to understand more deeply these research fields, analysing urban areas from the city level to specific alternatives at the building level, and seeks to answer the following questions: (i) What are the main factors affecting the environmental impacts of water supply networks in cities and which improvements should be implemented? – city scale (ii) How effective are water-saving technologies used at the building level in urban areas? – building scale (iii) Are integrated rooftop greenhouses an efficient and sustainable alternative for food production in cities? – Specific alternative This dissertation contributes to understand the main factors influencing the impacts of water supply networks and provides useful tools for the environmental analysis of these systems. The results can be used by urban planners and network managers to planning sustainable networks. Moreover, the experimental research conducted in innovative buildings with water-saving technologies and vertical farming proves the feasibility of these advanced systems and highlights the importance of optimising the use of resources. Future research on the fields assessed might focus on the following areas: • Evaluating the ecoefficiency of the construction of water supply networks. • Implementing further statistical studies of the operation of water supply networks. • To implement the water-energy-food nexus to develop new urban systems that integrate food production and water use efficiency issues. • Exploring the full potential of i-RTGs and analyse the system growing different crops

Distintiu de garantia de qualitat ambiental per a equipaments culturals: aplicació pilot en biblioteques

El DGQA per a Equipaments Culturals és un distintiu per a la certificació ambiental de biblioteques i museus. L’objectiu del projecte és avaluar el distintiu mitjançant una aplicació pilot en 26 biblioteques de la província de Barcelona, i proposar millores tant per al distintiu com per a les biblioteques. També es pretén fer recerca sobre l’ecoetiquetatge de serveis, ja que és un àmbit poc desenvolupat, i sobre el sistema d’estudi, les biblioteques. Una anàlisi de les ecoetiquetes a nivell mundial, considerant 4 macroregions, ha permès caracteritzar les ecoetiquetes i determinar la situació actual dels serveis en l’ecoetiquetatge. Hi han variacions en el nombre de categories entre ecoetiquetes, i el percentatge de categories de serveis és, en general, reduït (8% de mitjana). Els subsectors serveis dominants són els d’Hosteleria, serveis de neteja i comerç. No hi ha cap experiència de certificació ambiental de serveis culturals, per tant, l’ecoetiquetatge de serveis culturals és un àmbit nou. El sistema d’estudi són 26 biblioteques de la província de Barcelona. L’aplicació del distintiu a aquestes s’ha dut a terme realitzant treball de camp a cadascuna per tal de determinar el seu estat ambiental. Posteriorment, s’han analitzat les dades per establir el grau de compliment de cadascuna. La majoria de les biblioteques (85%) compleixen més de la meitat dels criteris bàsics, i un 60% superen la puntuació mínima de compliment dels criteris opcionals. Els resultats obtinguts han permès avaluar la viabilitat de la implantació del distintiu, a través de l’anàlisi de cadascun dels seus criteris. Per tal de millorar les possibilitats d’èxit en la implantació del distintiu, s’han aportat un seguit de propostes a nivell individual i col·lectiu. S’ha realitzat una fitxa per a cadascuna de les 26 biblioteques, per tal d’orientar els gestors de les biblioteques en l’adopció de mesures per a l’acompliment dels criteris. També s’han inclòs propostes a l’avaluació dels criteris, dirigides als gestors del distintiu.El DGQA para Equipamientos Culturales es un distintivo ambiental para la certificación ambiental de bibliotecas y museos. El objetivo del proyecto es evaluar el distintivo mediante una aplicación piloto en 26 bibliotecas de la provincia de Barcelona, y proponer mejoras tanto para el distintivo como para las bibliotecas. También se pretende investigar sobre el ecoetiquetado de servicios, ya que es un ámbito poco desarrollado, y sobre el sistema de estudio, las bibliotecas. Un análisis de las ecoetiquetas a nivel mundial, considerando 4 macroregiones, ha permitido caracterizar las ecoetiquetas y determinar la situación actual de los servicios en el ecoetiquetado. Hay variaciones en el número de categorías entre ecoetiquetas, y el porcentaje de categorías de servicios es, en general, reducido (8% de media). Los subsectores del sector servicios dominantes son los de Hostelería, servicios de limpieza y comercio. No hay ninguna experiencia de certificación ambiental de servicios culturales, por lo tanto el ecoetiquetado de servicios culturales es un ámbito nuevo. El sistema de estudio son 26 bibliotecas de la provincia de Barcelona. La aplicación del distintivo en estas se ha llevado a cabo realizando trabajo de campo en cada una para determinar su estado ambiental. Posteriormente, se han analizado los datos para establecer el grado de cumplimiento de cada una. La mayoría de las bibliotecas (85%) cumplen más de la mitad de los criterios básicos, y un 60% superan la puntuación mínima de cumplimiento de los criterios opcionales. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido evaluar la viabilidad de la implantación del distintivo, a través del análisis de cada uno de sus criterios. Para mejorar las posibilidades de éxito en la implantación del distintivo, se han aportado una serie de propuestas a nivel individual y colectivo. Se ha realizado una ficha para cada una de las 26 bibliotecas, para orientar a los gestores de las bibliotecas en la adopción de medidas para el cumplimiento de los criterios. También se han incluido propuestas a la evaluación de los criterios, dirigidas a los gestores del distintivo.The DGQA for Cultural Facilities is a distinctive for environmental certification of libraries and museums. The project’s objective is to assess the distinctive with a prototype in 26 libraries in the province of Barcelona, and suggest improvements for both the distinctive and the libraries. It also aims to investigate services eco-labelling, since it is a less developed area, and the studio system, the libraries. An analysis of eco-labels worldwide, considering 4 macroregions, has allowed the characterization of ecolabels and the determination of the current status of services eco-labelling. There are variations in the number of categories between ecolabels and the percentage of categories of services is generally low (8% on average). The dominant subsectors are hospitality services, cleaning services and trade. There is no experience of environmental certification of cultural services, therefore, cultural services eco-labelling is a new field. The system studied are 26 libraries in the province of Barcelona. The application of these distinctive has been carried out through field work in each to determine its environmental status. Subsequently, data were analysed to establish the degree of compliance of each. Most libraries (85%) met more than half of the basic criteria, and 60% exceeded the minimum score of optional criteria. The results obtained allow us to evaluate the feasibility of incorporating the distinctive, through the analysis of each of the criteria. To improve the chances of success in implementing the distinctive, a series of proposals have been provided individually and collectively. We make a tab for each of the 26 libraries in order to guide the management of libraries in the adoption of measures for meeting the criteria. Proposals have also been included in the evaluation of the criteria, aimed at the managers’ distinctive

Environmental analysis of building shallow foundations: The influence of prefabrication, typology, and structural design codes

The design of building foundations has usually been based on tradition, local practice, experience, and structural design codes. Safety is invariably considered the main factor and environmental criteria (or, in general, sustainability) is seldom given due consideration. However, similar safety indicators can be achieved with different variables and a minimum safety factor must always be ensured. The main objective of this study is, from an environmental perspective, to assess the influence of the construction system (cast-in-situ or precast), foundation type (rigid or flexible), and structural code (EC-2 or EHE-08) in the case of a concrete shallow foundation (CSF), using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Applying this methodology, the materials (concrete and steel) yielded the highest impacts in all categories, at around 95% for cast-in-situ CSFs and at around 85% for precast CSFs, both in relation to global warming. Consequently, optimization of the amount of these materials is crucial when considering the particular variables selected in this study. The results showed that cast-in-situ and flexible CSFs at moderately shallow depths (and therefore with less steel reinforcement) and precast CSFs with considerable reductions in concrete volumes (due to sloped shapes) had lower environmental impacts. In addition, cast-in-situ CSFs constructed in accordance with the EHE-08 structural code showed lower impacts, while precast CSFs complying with the EC-2 code were environmentally preferable. However, a specific study might be required for specific factors in each case (loads, soil type, structural settlement, among others). Relevant environmental effects associated with the three variables should therefore be given specific consideration in the development of structural design codes and future constructions

Life cycle assessment of European copper mining : A case study from Sweden

The application of the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology in the mining sector has the potential to evaluate the environmental sustainability of the primary production of metals. As part of a wider project on developing LCA models and methods for mining, life cycle inventory (LCI) data have been collected at two European copper-producing mine sites, Aitik (Sweden) and Cobre las Cruces (Spain). Results from Aitik, including their impact analysis, identify the use of diesel and explosives, the emission of sulfur dioxide, as well as nitrogen and other emissions in the upstream supply chain of explosives and electricity, as significant contributors to the environmental impact. These outputs have influence on the impact categories Climate Change, Photochemical Ozone Formation, Acidification, as well as Terrestrial and Marine Eutrophication. Due to the increasing incorporation of LCA into legislative demands on the mining sector, mining companies need to establish the necessary infrastructure and framework to be able to provide the required data in a fast, transparent and cost-efficient manner. For this reason, some recommendations to improve communication and data management within the companies have been established from the experience gained within this project.This publication is part of the EIT Raw Materials Upscaling Project "Sustainable management of primary raw materials through a better approach in Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (SUPRIM)"</p

Environmental analysis of concrete deep foundations:Influence of prefabrication, concrete strength, and design codes

\u3cp\u3eThere is great potential to reduce the environmental impact of the building sector, which is now an area of immense importance, through the optimisation of construction materials and components. This study assesses both the design and the construction of Concrete Deep Foundations (CDFs), which are widely used in construction, from an environmental perspective considering the following variables: (i) grade of prefabrication, i.e., fully cast in situ, partly prefabricated, and fully prefabricated; (ii) compressive strength of cast-in-situ concrete; and (iii) building design codes, i.e., current Spanish codes (EHE-08 and CTE), Eurocode with the Spanish annexes, and Eurocode with the United Kingdom annexes. In addition, the results of Dynamic Load Tests (DLTs) and the economic cost of several CDFs are evaluated. Geotechnical and structural designs of CDFs are carried out along with their life-cycle assessment. Some of the main findings include: (i) partially and fully prefabricated CDFs and conducting DLTs reduced the environmental impact in most categories (by up to 44% for global warming emissions) compared to the fully cast-in-situ CDFs, although they were 12–37% more expensive; (ii) changing the compressive strength of the concrete (in piles and cap) in fully cast-in-situ CDFs from 25 to 35 MPa reduced the environmental impact by up to 14–17% in all categories and economic costs by up to 12%; and, (iii) CDFs with bored piles resulted in the lowest environmental burden when designed with Eurocode and UK annexes (11–31% less impact), as did CDFs with driven piles designed with current Spanish codes (11–18% less impact). The study variables and sensitivity analysis showed a significant effect on the results and should be considered in future construction, research, and building codes.\u3c/p\u3

Environmental analysis of concrete deep foundations: influence of prefabrication, concrete strength, and design codes

There is great potential to reduce the environmental impact of the building sector, which is now an area of immense importance, through the optimisation of construction materials and components. This study assesses both the design and the construction of Concrete Deep Foundations (CDFs), which are widely used in construction, from an environmental perspective considering the following variables: (i) grade of prefabrication, i.e., fully cast in situ, partly prefabricated, and fully prefabricated; (ii) compressive strength of cast-in-situ concrete; and (iii) building design codes, i.e., current Spanish codes (EHE-08 and CTE), Eurocode with the Spanish annexes, and Eurocode with the United Kingdom annexes. In addition, the results of Dynamic Load Tests (DLTs) and the economic cost of several CDFs are evaluated. Geotechnical and structural designs of CDFs are carried out along with their life-cycle assessment. Some of the main findings include: (i) partially and fully prefabricated CDFs and conducting DLTs reduced the environmental impact in most categories (by up to 44% for global warming emissions) compared to the fully cast-in-situ CDFs, although they were 12–37% more expensive; (ii) changing the compressive strength of the concrete (in piles and cap) in fully cast-in-situ CDFs from 25 to 35¿MPa reduced the environmental impact by up to 14–17% in all categories and economic costs by up to 12%; and, (iii) CDFs with bored piles resulted in the lowest environmental burden when designed with Eurocode and UK annexes (11–31% less impact), as did CDFs with driven piles designed with current Spanish codes (11–18% less impact). The study variables and sensitivity analysis showed a significant effect on the results and should be considered in future construction, research, and building codes.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft