The European Union legal response to climate migration. Is it enough?

Pese a la existencia de algunos esfuerzos que se vienen desarrollando a nivel internacional, europeo y nacional a la hora de reducir la emisión de gases efecto invernadero y abordar los efectos negativos derivados del cambio climático, se prevé que el avance del mismo origine desplazamientos poblacionales tanto a nivel interno como a nivel transfronterizo en un futuro próximo. Es probable que ello intensifique los flujos migratorios hacia países europeos principalmente provenientes de las rutas del mediterráneo occidental, oriental y central, así como del atlántico desde la zona del norte de África. Ante esta circunstancia conviene reflexionar si el Derecho de la Unión Europea proporciona soluciones adecuadas que se adapten a esta realidad incipiente proporcionando un marco de protección para esta nueva categoría de migrantes, o si, por el contrario, es preciso adoptar un nuevo marco normativo que aborde de forma específica ésta cuestiónDespite the existence of some efforts that are developing at the international, European and national levels in order to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, it is expected that Climate Change will cause both internally and cross-border population displacements in the near future. This is likely to intensify migratory flows to European countries mainly from the western, eastern and central Mediterranean routes, as well as from the Atlantic route from the North African area. Given this circumstance, it is convenient to reflect on whether European Union law provides adequate solutions that adapt to this incipient reality by providing a protection framework for this new category of migrants, or whether, on the contrary, it is necessary to adopt a new regulatory framework that addresses specifically this issue.Xunta de Galici

Climate change-induced migration: legal-political challenges and proposals for its regulation

Los efectos derivados del cambio climático (inundaciones, elevación del nivel del mar, sequías, fenómenos extremos), así como sus consecuentes impactos económicos, sociales y sobre la salud y la vida de las poblaciones (pérdida de cultivos, de medios de vida y de agua potable, enfermedades) están forzando a numerosas personas a abandonar sus hogares. Así, diversos ciudadanos de Kiribati y Tuvalu, huyendo de los efectos negativos del cambio climático, han tratado de encontrar protección y asilo en otros países, como en Nueva Zelanda y Australia, buscando amparo en la Convención sobre el estatuto de los refugiados (también conocida como Convención de Ginebra de 28 de julio de 1951) y en el Pacto Internacional de los Derechos Civiles y Políticos (adoptado el 16 de diciembre de 1966), llegando hasta los Tribunales y ante el Comité de Derechos Humanos. Sin embargo, la mayoría de ellos ha visto desestimadas sus pretensiones. En base a ello nos preguntamos: ¿Son suficientes los mecanismos jurídicos existentes basados en el derecho humanitario, los derechos humanos y el derecho ambiental para abordar el problema de las migraciones climáticas? De esta pregunta de investigación de lege data, partiendo de la hipótesis de la insuficiencia de los regímenes jurídicos existentes, planteamos una segunda cuestión de lege ferenda: ¿qué herramientas jurídicas podrían adoptarse para brindar respuestas a estos desplazamientos forzados? Para ello se analizan las fortalezas y debilidades de las diferentes soluciones que pueden implementarse para abordar esta problemática, bien adaptando la normativa internacional ya existente en materia de medio ambiente y de derecho humanitario, bien implementando nuevas medidas que van desde la aprobación de nuevos tratados internacionales multilaterales, regionales y bilaterales ad hoc complementados con mecanismos de soft law.The effects derived from climate change (floods, sea level rise, droughts, meteorological extreme events), as well as their socio-economic impacts with incidence in livelihoods, health and life of populations (loss of crops, livelihoods, and drinking water, diseases) are forcing many people to leave their homes. Thus, several citizens of Kiribati and Tuvalu, fleeing these negative effects of climate change, have tried to seek protection and asylum in other countries, such as New Zealand and Australia under the umbrella of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (also known as the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951) and The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1966), reaching the Courts and the Human Rights Committee. However, the majority of these complaints have been dismissed. After these experiences, we ask ourselves: Are the existing legal mechanisms based on humanitarian law, human rights and environmental law sufficient to address the problem of climate migration? Based on this de lege data research question, starting from the hypothesis of the insufficiency of existing legal regimes, we pose a second de lege ferenda question: which legal tools could be adopted to provide answers to this forced displacement? For this, the strengths and weaknesses of the different solutions that can be implemented to address this problem are analyzed, either by adapting the existing international regulations on the environment and humanitarian law, or by implementing new measures that range from the approval of new international multilateral, regional and bilateral ad hoc treaties complemented by soft law mechanisms.Agencia Estatal de Investigación | Ref. TED2021-129152B-C44Xunta de Galicia | Ref. ED481B 2019/4

La interpretación del concepto de “refugiado” en los litigios derivados de las migraciones climáticas

En la última década se han sustanciado diversos litigios ante los Tribunales de Australia y Nueva Zelanda en los que ciudadanos de los Estados insulares de Kiribati y Tuvalu, huyendo de los fuertes impactos del cambio climático sobre los mismos, solicitaban la obtención de visados de residencia en aquellos países. Dentro de los argumentos esgrimidos por los recurrentes destaca la consideración de “refugiados climáticos” y, en base a ello, la solicitud de la extensión de la protección brindada por la Convención de Ginebra para los “refugiados políticos”. Sin embargo, como se analiza detalladamente a lo largo de la presente comunicación, los Tribunales no se han mostrado partidarios de incluir a dichos migrantes climáticos dentro del ámbito de aplicación de la Convención. El presente trabajo pretende profundizar tanto en la argumentación esgrimida por los solicitantes como en los fundamentos expuestos por los Tribunales en torno al concepto de “refugiado” y su aplicación a los “migrantes climáticos”, tomando como principal foco de estudio el caso No. 0907346 [2009] RRTA 1168 (de 10 de diciembre de 2009) resuelto por el Tribunal Supremo de Australia ante la reclamación presentada por un ciudadano de Kiribati, complementándolo con la doctrina relevante en la materia. Finalmente, partiendo de las dificultades existentes para la aplicación del estatuto de “refugiado” a los migrantes climáticos, se esbozan varias propuestas necesarias para no desproteger a estos colectivos e individuos que se encuentran en un riesgo serio, tal y como han reconocido los propios tribunales.Agencia Estatal de Investigación | Ref. DER2017-85981-C2-2-

The development of marine renewable energies within the framework of the European Union. Legal analysis of the key environmental and social challenges

Las recientes propuestas normativas de la UE dirigidas a promover la rápida expansión de las energías renovables en general, y -dado el elevado potencial que albergan los mares europeos-, de las energías renovables marinas en particular, se dirigen hacia la racionalización y simplificación procedimental. Ello, sin embargo, puede chocar con intereses y valores ambientales y de protección de la biodiversidad y del medio marino que también son perseguidos por otros instrumentos normativos de derecho comunitario. Asimismo, en aras de lograr una transición energética justa (principalmente desde el prisma de la justicia distributiva y la justicia procesal) alineada con una democracia energética, el despliegue de estas tecnologías no puede ser ajeno a los sectores tradicionales del mar que ven peligrar sus medios de vida y a las comunidades costeras locales afectadas. En este trabajo analizamos desde un punto de vista jurídico estos retos y desafíos ambientales y sociales a los que se enfrenta el desarrollo de las energías renovables marinas, proponiendo soluciones alternativas.The recent EU regulatory proposals for promoting the rapid expansion of renewable energies in general, and -given the high potential of European seas-, of marine renewable energies in particular, aim at rationalization and procedural simplification. This, however, can clash with environmental interests and values on protection of biodiversity and the marine environment that are also pursued by other normative instruments of EU law. Likewise, in order to achieve a just energy transition (mainly from the perspective of distributive justice and procedural justice) aligned with an energy democracy; the deployment of these technologies cannot ignore affected local coastal communities and the traditional sectors of the sea, which fear that their livelihoods be threatened. In this paper we analyze from a legal point of view these environmental and social challenges faced by the development of marine renewable energies, proposing alternative solutions

La Respuesta Jurídica de la Unión Europea ante las Migraciones Climáticas. ¿Es Suficiente?

Despite the existence of some efforts that are developing at the international, European and national levels in order to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, it is expected that Climate Change will cause both internally and cross-border population displacements in the near future. This is likely to intensify migratory flows to European countries mainly from the western, eastern and central Mediterranean routes, as well as from the Atlantic route from the North African area. Given this circumstance, it is convenient to reflect on whether European Union law provides adequate solutions that adapt to this incipient reality by providing a protection framework for this new category of migrants, or whether, on the contrary, it is necessary to adopt a new regulatory framework that addresses specifically this issuePese a la existencia de algunos esfuerzos que se vienen desarrollando a nivel internacional, europeo y nacional a la hora de reducir la emisión de gases efecto invernadero y abordar los efectos negativos derivados del cambio climático, se prevé que el avance del mismo origine desplazamientos poblacionales tanto a nivel interno como a nivel transfronterizo en un futuro próximo. Es probable que ello intensifique los flujos migratorios hacia países europeos principalmente provenientes de las rutas del mediterráneo occidental, oriental y central, así como del atlántico desde la zona del norte de África. Ante esta circunstancia conviene reflexionar si el Derecho de la Unión Europea proporciona soluciones adecuadas que se adapten a esta realidad incipiente proporcionando un marco de protección para esta nueva categoría de migrantes, o si, por el contrario, es preciso adoptar un nuevo marco normativo que aborde de forma específica ésta cuestió

The influence of maritime spatial planning on the development of marine renewable energies in Portugal and Spain: legal challenges and opportunities

The objective of this study is to analyse, from a legal point of view, the influence of the transposition of Marine Spatial Planning Directive into both Spanish and Portuguese domestic laws on the development of marine renewable energies in both countries. This article concludes that the Portuguese legal system is more favourable for the development of marine renewable energies than the Spanish legal regime, since the former establishes a more flexible planning system, sets criteria for the prioritisation of marine uses, incorporates trade-off mechanisms, introduces an electronic single-window system and regulates a pilot zone. These measures can help streamline licensing processes, avoid and resolve conflicts with other sea users, and adapt planning instruments to the rapid development of new marine renewable technologies. However, both legal regimes lack specific legal mechanisms aimed at offering effective protection of the marine environment against negative effects arising from the installation of such devices. Similarly, there is a lack of coordination between maritime spatial planning instruments and land planning instruments, and between the Central Government and the autonomous regions. This may hinder the installation of marine renewable energies. This study has implications in relation to the EU integrated marine policy aimed at achieving a balance between blue growth and the conservation of the marine environment, as well as an inter-administrative coordination improvement in decision-making.Xunta de Galicia | Ref. ED481A-2016/36Programa IACOBUS (Galicia-North Portugal Euroregion

Development of offshore wind power: contrasting optimal wind sites with legal restrictions in Galicia, Spain

The region of Galicia, in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, has a high wind potential for the installation of offshore wind farms (OWFs) in many areas of its surrounding marine waters. However, legal restrictions derived from the protection of other interests that converge in the marine environment (such as fishing, navigation, and biodiversity conservation) must be considered, along with technical limitations resulting from water depth. This study is aimed at analysing legal restrictions on the installation of OWFs in Galician waters and at identifying those zones of less conflict where the wind power density (WPD) is greater and the depths and distances from the coast are technically feasible given the current status of technology in Europe. To do this, a legal study was performed of both the strategic environmental assessment of the Spanish coast and the regulations of the different marine sectors at European, international, national, and regional levels. In addition, the WPD along the north-western area of the Iberian Peninsula and Europe was calculated, and an analysis of maximum and average depths and distances from the coast of planned and installed OWFs in Europe was made. Two main zones without legal and technical restrictions were identified in the north-eastern corner of Galicia and in the south of the Vigo estuary. The greatest WPD was identified in the north-western zone, from Cape Finisterre to Cape Ortegal, where there are small sites without legal or technical restrictions that are near several protected zones (such as a marine reserve, a special protected area, and a wetland and its buffer zone), making necessary a deeper analysis of the specific impacts of each OWF project in the Environmental Impact Assessment.Xunta de Galicia | Ref. ED481A-2016/36Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia | Ref. SFRH/BPD/118142/201

Effects of varying the liquid fuel type and air co-flow conditions on the microscopic spray characteristics in an atmospheric annular co-flow spray burner

[EN] The atomization process is critical for combustion systems since it directly influences emissions and perfor-mance. Thus injection system should provide the spray required structure and characteristics, e.g., angle and droplet size distribution. Therefore, this work investigates the effects of varying the fuel type, air co-flow rates, fuel mass flow rate and air co-flow temperature on the spray characteristics (e.g., droplet size distribution and droplet velocity) in an annular co-flow spray burner. These effects were investigated by measuring droplet sizes and velocities at different radial and axial positions of n-Heptane, n-Decane and n-Dodecane sprays under non-reacting conditions at a room pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 298 K and using the Microscopic Diffused Back-illumination (MDBI) technique. In addition, the Sauter mean diameter (SMD) for different flow conditions were predicted using three well-known correlations and compared to experimental measurements. The outcomes of this research provided a fair understanding of the influence of varying these parameters on the droplet sizes and velocity through a wide test matrix. Finally, the findings reported here will support future research into the function of phase change in flame stability.This research was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencias e Innovacion through project reference PID2021-125812OB-C21. Part of the experimental equipment was purchased with support from Conselleria de Innovacion, Universidades, Ciencia y Sociedad Digital of Generalitat Valenciana through grant CIPPC/2021/49. Finally, the support of Omar Huerta Cornejo, Jose E. del Rey and Carlos Gil in conducting the experiments and laboratory work is greatly appreciated.Cardona, S.; Payri, R.; Salvador, FJ.; Gimeno, J. (2023). Effects of varying the liquid fuel type and air co-flow conditions on the microscopic spray characteristics in an atmospheric annular co-flow spray burner. Fuel. 335:1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.12701811633

Development of Offshore Wind Power: Contrasting Optimal Wind Sites with Legal Restrictions in Galicia, Spain

Santiago Salvador is supported by the Xunta of Galicia through a pre-doctoral grant [ED481A-2016/36]. Xurxo Costoya is supported by the Portuguese Science Foundation (FCT) through a post-doctoral grant [SFRH/BPD/118142/2016].[Abstract] The region of Galicia, in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, has a high wind potential for the installation of offshore wind farms (OWFs) in many areas of its surrounding marine waters. However, legal restrictions derived from the protection of other interests that converge in the marine environment (such as fishing, navigation, and biodiversity conservation) must be considered, along with technical limitations resulting from water depth. This study is aimed at analysing legal restrictions on the installation of OWFs in Galician waters and at identifying those zones of less conflict where the wind power density (WPD) is greater and the depths and distances from the coast are technically feasible given the current status of technology in Europe. To do this, a legal study was performed of both the strategic environmental assessment of the Spanish coast and the regulations of the different marine sectors at European, international, national, and regional levels. In addition, the WPD along the north-western area of the Iberian Peninsula and Europe was calculated, and an analysis of maximum and average depths and distances from the coast of planned and installed OWFs in Europe was made. Two main zones without legal and technical restrictions were identified in the north-eastern corner of Galicia and in the south of the Vigo estuary. The greatest WPD was identified in the north-western zone, from Cape Finisterre to Cape Ortegal, where there are small sites without legal or technical restrictions that are near several protected zones (such as a marine reserve, a special protected area, and a wetland and its buffer zone), making necessary a deeper analysis of the specific impacts of each OWF project in the Environmental Impact Assessment.Xunta de Galicia; ED481A-2016/36Portugal. Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT); SFRH/BPD/118142/201

An overview of offshore wind energy resources in Europe under present and future climate

Long-term sustainable development of European offshore wind energy requires knowledge of the best places for installing offshore wind farms. To achieve this, a good knowledge of wind resources is needed, as well as knowledge of international, European, and national regulations regarding conflict management, marine environment conservation, biodiversity protection, licensing processes, and support regimes. Such a multidisciplinary approach could help to identify areas where wind resources are abundant and where conflicts with other interests are scarce, support measures are greater, and licensing processes are streamlined. An overview of offshore wind power studies at present, and of their future projections for the 21st century, allows for determining the optimal European locations to install or maintain offshore wind farms. Only northern Europe, the northwest portion of the Iberian Peninsula, the Gulf of Lyon, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the northwest coast of Turkey show no change or increase in wind power, revealing these locations as the most suitable for installing and maintaining offshore wind farms in the future. The installation of wind farms is subject to restrictions established under international law, European law, and the domestic legal framework of each EU member state. Europe is moving toward streamlining of licensing procedures, reducing subsidies, and implementing auction systems.Xunta de Galicia | Ref. ED431C 2017/64Xunta de Galicia | Ref. ED481A-2016/36Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia | Ref. SFRH/BPD/118142/20