The place of language in supporting children’s mathematical development: two Grade 4 teachers’ use of classroom talk

Measures of mathematics achievement (documented locally, and in internationally comparative terms) have shown that South African learners whose first language (L1) is different from their language of learning and teaching (LoLT) are at a significant disadvantage, most particularly learners from vulnerable or marginalised communities. This transdisciplinary case study looks at two experienced Grade 4 teachers’ mathematics classroom talk practices. It is situated within a second language (L2) teaching/learning context in which teachers and learners share the same first language, but mathematics learning and teaching takes place officially through an L2 (English). The study is located within a qualitative and interpretive framework. It brings together insights from a range of distinct but complementary theoretical disciplines in its analysis of the empirical classroom observation and interview data. Its theoretical framing derives initially from professional literature relating to L2 teaching and learning. This is then embedded within a broader theoretical frame deriving from the work of Vygotsky, Bernstein and Halliday, each of whom has focussed on the centrality of language to the teaching/ learning process, as well as contributed to a heightened appreciation of socio-cultural influences on learners’ meaning-making processes. The study illuminates some of the linguistic challenges to L2 children’s maximal participation in the learning of school mathematics. It points too to the significant challenge many South African mathematics teachers face in trying to meet curriculum coverage and pacing demands, while simultaneously facilitating their learners’ ongoing induction – in and through L2 predominantly – into mathematically-appropriate discourse. Grade 4 is a year in which such challenges are often more acutely felt. Independently of the transition across to an L2 for the majority of South African learners, this is the year also where - relative to the foundation phase years - learners encounter an expansion of knowledge areas and more specialised academic text. Many learners struggle to adjust to these higher conceptual and linguistic demands, often leading to what has been termed a ‘fourth-grade slump’. The study highlights the need for more sustained and proactive challenging of perceptions that English as LoLT is the obvious route to educational - and subsequent economic - opportunity. Recognition of the consequences deriving from the choice of English as the main LoLT for mathematics teaching and learning could help counterbalance deficit discourses implicating poor teaching as a major contributor to South Africa’s poor mathematics education outcomes. The study highlights further that, if language is genuinely to be used as the ‘tool’ for learning it is claimed to be, synergistic opportunities for the dovetailing of insights into L2 learners’ literacy/ numeracy development require further exploration. It points to the need for ongoing professional development support for teachers of mathematics (at both pre- and in-service levels) that focuses on broadening and deepening their understandings around the linguistic, and hence epistemological, consequences of learning mathematics through an L2. Expanding mathematics teachers’ repertoires of strategies for supporting learners’ developing cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in mathematics (in both L1 and L2) would involve a conception of ‘academic language’ in mathematics which goes beyond a constrained interpretation of ‘legitimate’ mathematical text as that which is in texts such as curriculum documents and text books. Especially important here are strategies which foreground the value of classroom talk in assisting L2 children towards becoming more confident, competent and explorative bilingual learners, and thereby, more active agents of their own mathematical meaning-making processes. The study argues that such meaning-making processes would be further strengthened were additive bilingualism (in place of current predominantly subtractive practices) to be genuinely taken up as core to any teaching and learning of mathematics in contexts such as those described in this case study

An investigation of the evolution and current status of the core theoretical disciplines in the training of primary school teachers at selected English-medium training institutions in South Africa

This investigation examines developments which have taken place in the theoretical component of pre-service courses for primary teachers. Revised conceptions of the purpose and scope of primary education, and the attendant demand for better qualified primary teachers to implement such education, resulted in a considerable increase in the theoretical component of primary teacher preparation courses . Better theoretical understanding of the educative task was perceived to be essential to the production of more effective primary teachers. The emergence of various schemes for the preparation of South African primary teachers is outlined. The Cape Province provides the major exemplar. The nature of educational theory, and its precise contribution to enhanced teaching ability has been a subject of fierce debate within educational circles. An analysis of theory, in general, and as it applies in the educational context, is undertaken. The evolution of the core theoretical disciplines of education - history, philosophy, psychology and sociology of education - is traced. The current status of these disciplines at selected South African institutions undertaking primary teacher preparation is then investigated, and the views of lecturing staff at these institutions on the optimal approach to the teaching of educational theory are presented. The disciplines still play an important role in the South African Bachelor of Primary Education degree courses surveyed. In British teacher preparation courses, however, disenchantment with the disciplines' format has given rise to demands for new approaches to the teaching of educational theory. Some of these alternative approaches are evaluated. An overall assessment is made of the contribution that can be expected from educational theory in pre-service courses for primary teachers, and some recommendations are made for the management of the theoretical component of pre-service courses for South African primary teachers

Exploring a grade 5 English teacher's strategies for helping her learners develop their reading literacy: a case study

Despite South Africa’s constitutional commitment to multilingualism, literacy in English is important in education and the economy. English is widely perceived as the language of opportunity, and many South African primary schools have chosen English as their language of learning and teaching (LoLT). In terms of South Africa’s 1997 Language in Education Policy, this choice means that such a school has to comply with English Home Language curriculum requirements. In situations where few learners (or teachers) have English as a home language, the choice of English as LoLT poses particular challenges, perhaps most crucially in the early years of literacy development. This investigation explores the work of an intermediate phase teacher working in the Eastern Cape province at a “no-fee” school where English is the chosen LoLT, but where the majority of learners have isiXhosa as their home language. A qualitative interpretive approach was used to focus on the teacher’s strategies for developing her Grade 5 learners’ reading literacy in English. Data were derived via lesson observation and in-depth interviewing. Fourteen of the teacher’s English lessons were observed and she was interviewed twice. Analysis of the data shows that few learners meet the reading literacy levels outlined in National Curriculum Statement guidelines. The teacher, working as she is in what are essentially subtractive bilingualism circumstances, is poorly equipped to cope with the task of developing her learners’ reading literacy. I argue that educational policy, contributing as it does to the ongoing displacement, by English, of many South African children’s home languages, not only undermines the post-apartheid Government’s attempts at linguistic equity, but also contributes significantly to unequal reading literacy achievement across South Africa’s different socio-economic sectors. Department of Basic Education officials, academics and others involved in decision-making around teacher education and development need to work together to interrogate policy and put in place more effective support structures to help teachers better cope with the exigencies outlined above

A mathematics teacher's response to a dilemma: 'I'm supposed to teach them in English but they don't understand'

English is the dominant language in South African schools although it is the home language for less than 10% of the population. Many schools have yet to embrace the Language in Education Policy’s advocacy of additive bilingualism. This has led to a majority of the country’s children learning and being assessed through a language in which they lack proficiency. This article draws on second language teaching and learning theory to make a case for more systematic support for learners’ second language development and for legitimation of use of home language in mathematics classrooms where a different language is the official medium. The article shares empirical data from a South African Grade 4 mathematics teacher’s classroom to illuminate arguments in favour of additive bilingualism

The prevalence and incidence of mental ill-health in adults with autism and intellectual disabilities

The prevalence, and incidence, of mental ill-health in adults with intellectual disabilities and autism were compared with the whole population with intellectual disabilities, and with controls, matched individually for age, gender, ability-level, and Down syndrome. Although the adults with autism had a higher point prevalence of problem behaviours compared with the whole adult population with intellectual disabilities, compared with individually matched controls there was no difference in prevalence, or incidence of either problem behaviours or other mental ill-health. Adults with autism who had problem behaviours were less likely to recover over a two-year period than were their matched controls. Apparent differences in rates of mental ill-health are accounted for by factors other than autism, including Down syndrome and ability level

Early death and causes of death of people with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review

Background: Death of people with intellectual disabilities is considered to be earlier than for the general population. Methods: Databases were searched for intellectual disability AND death key words. Strict inclusion/exclusion criteria were used. Information was extracted from selected papers, tabulated, and synthesised. Results: 27/19,111 articles met criteria. Death was earlier by 20 years. It has improved in recent decades; however the same inequality gap with the general population remains. More severe intellectual disabilities, and/or additional co-morbidities rendered it shortest. Standardised Mortality Rates showed a greater inequality for women than men. Respiratory and circulatory diseases were the main causes of death. Cancer was less common, and profile differed from the general population. Some deaths are potentially avoidable. All research is from high income countries, and cause of death is surprisingly little investigated. Conclusions: Improved anticipatory health care such as health checks and initiatives addressing relevant health risks are recommended

The Drakensberg Declaration on the Control of Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease in Africa

This paper reviews some research studies on tillage methods influencing soil and moisture conservation in the eastern African countries of Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Ethiopia during the past four decades. Most of these studies were conducted in marginal rainfall (semi arid ) areas and on shallow soils of various textures (sandy clay loam, sandy clay, clay and loam). The studies were meant to establish the effects of tillage and residue management practices on physico-chemical soil properties (i.e. structure, bulk density, soil moisture and organic matter contents), runoff and infiltration. This review emphasizes the importance of appropriate tillage and residue management methods (contour bunds and terraces, minimum tillage, tied ridging, mulching and conventional tillage) in providing soil conditions favourable for soil moisture conservation and subsequent crop performance and yield on smallholder farm

Cross-Species Transmission of a Novel Adenovirus Associated with a Fulminant Pneumonia Outbreak in a New World Monkey Colony

Adenoviruses are DNA viruses that naturally infect many vertebrates, including humans and monkeys, and cause a wide range of clinical illnesses in humans. Infection from individual strains has conventionally been thought to be species-specific. Here we applied the Virochip, a pan-viral microarray, to identify a novel adenovirus (TMAdV, titi monkey adenovirus) as the cause of a deadly outbreak in a closed colony of New World monkeys (titi monkeys; Callicebus cupreus) at the California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC). Among 65 titi monkeys housed in a building, 23 (34%) developed upper respiratory symptoms that progressed to fulminant pneumonia and hepatitis, and 19 of 23 monkeys, or 83% of those infected, died or were humanely euthanized. Whole-genome sequencing of TMAdV revealed that this adenovirus is a new species and highly divergent, sharing <57% pairwise nucleotide identity with other adenoviruses. Cultivation of TMAdV was successful in a human A549 lung adenocarcinoma cell line, but not in primary or established monkey kidney cells. At the onset of the outbreak, the researcher in closest contact with the monkeys developed an acute respiratory illness, with symptoms persisting for 4 weeks, and had a convalescent serum sample seropositive for TMAdV. A clinically ill family member, despite having no contact with the CNPRC, also tested positive, and screening of a set of 81 random adult blood donors from the Western United States detected TMAdV-specific neutralizing antibodies in 2 individuals (2/81, or 2.5%). These findings raise the possibility of zoonotic infection by TMAdV and human-to-human transmission of the virus in the population. Given the unusually high case fatality rate from the outbreak (83%), it is unlikely that titi monkeys are the native host species for TMAdV, and the natural reservoir of the virus is still unknown. The discovery of TMAdV, a novel adenovirus with the capacity to infect both monkeys and humans, suggests that adenoviruses should be monitored closely as potential causes of cross-species outbreaks

Exploratory mathematics talk in a second language: a sociolinguistic perspective:

This paper illuminates challenges confronting teachers and students at the literacy/numeracy interface in contexts where students have not developed sufficient English language proficiency to be learning mathematics through English but, due to socio-politically and economically driven perceptions are being taught in English. We analyse transcript data of classroom talk in a South African grade 4 mathematics lesson on fractions. Together with interview data, the lesson data highlight some of the consequences students’ diminished access to their home language appear to have on their access to mathematical meaning-making