Dancing with wolves at Schöningen 13II-4

The Schöningen 13II-4 site has produced a wealth of insight into the hunting and butchery activities of Middle Pleistocene hominins, highlighted by the famous Schöningen spears preserved with hundreds of cut-marked and broken horse bones. The bones of carnivores are rare at the site, but tooth pits, scores, and other markings that record their presence are abundant. Here we describe the carnivore remains from Schöningen 13II-4 and provide a detailed analysis of carnivore markings on different skeletal parts in the faunal assemblage and their spatial distribution. In studying carnivore activities at Schöningen, we aim to achieve a more comprehensive view of site taphonomy and, in turn, a better appreciation of the anthropogenic process that shaped the archaeological record. The placement and sequence of carnivore marks on the bones in relation to butchery marks indicates that carnivores scavenged from the remains of hominin kills. In the large horse bone assemblage, carnivore damage is more prevalent on limb bones of juveniles than adults. This pattern reveals that adult horse carcasses were fully butchered by hominins, but juvenile horse carcasses were abandoned earlier in the butchery process, leaving more consumable tissues that attracted scavenging carnivores. Tooth pits and scores on the Schöningen remains are very large and compare well with markings produced by wolves, especially those observed in a sample of modern wolf-gnawed bones we collected and analysed from Adler- und Wolfspark Kasteelburg. Clusters of carnivore-damaged bones appear around the periphery of dense concentrations of bones butchered by hominins, suggesting that wolves displaced some skeletal elements quickly after abandonment by hominins. Such a spatial pattern hints at the long-standing co-habitation of the Schöningen landscape by hominins and wolves during the Middle Pleistocen

A detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' faunal remains

The Middle Pleistocene Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' (Germany) is a key site for the study of human evolution, most notably for the discovery of Paleolithic wooden weaponry and evidence for developed hunting strategies. On the other hand, the 'Spear Horizon' offers an excellent opportunity to approach hominin spatial behavior, thanks to the richness of the archeological assemblage, its exceptional preservation, and the vast expanse of the excavated surface. Analyzing how space was used is essential for understanding hominin behavior at this unique open-air site and, from a wider perspective, for approaching how humans adapted to interglacial environments. In this article, we present an exhaustive spatial study of the complete Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' faunal assemblage and its archeological context, combining zooarcheology and spatial analysis through the extensive application of geographic information systems. Our results indicate the existence of different activity areas related to changes in the position of the shoreline due to fluctuations of water table levels of the Schöningen paleolake. These activity areas were likely used on a seasonal basis, whereas the spatial patterning observed in the distribution of faunal remains suggests a diversity of behavioral strategies in terms of intensity and/or duration of occupations. This study refines previous interpretations of the site and reconstructs human behavioral adaptations and the occupational changing lakeland environment during the Middle Pleistocene in Europe.This research is part of the ‘Hominin subsistence strategies during the Middle Pleistocene in Schoningen € ’ project, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (GA 683/9-1

Evaluating the incidence of hydrological processes during site formation through orientation analysis. A case study of the middle Palaeolithic Lakeland site of Neumark-Nord 2 (Germany)

Lacustrine localitieswere attractive environments for Palaeolithic hominins, since they provide a large and broad spectrumof resources. Moreover, they are excellent archives that allowfor high-resolution environmental, chronological and archaeological analyses. However, these deposits are often subject to complex formation and postdepositional factors, including water-related processes. Evaluating the influence of hydrological processes in site formation is thus essential to more accurately reconstruct the duration, intensity and types of hominin behaviour within these environments. In this paperwe present the orientation analysis of archaeological material from the Last Interglacial site Neumark-Nord 2, Germany. Orientation analysis was done using GIS to calculate the orientation of artefact from digital plans of the excavation surface, which were subsequently tested using circular statistics. The results of the orientation analysis are compared with a hydrological model to check the relation between preferred orientations and reconstructed areas of water flow and accumulation. Results suggest that low-energy hydrological processes could have affected certain areas of the find-bearing deposits at Neumark-Nord 2 but, overall, there is no evidence for either high-energy hydrological processes or a significant movement of parts of the archaeological assemblage.The project “Interglacial landscapes and Neanderthal adaptations in the Neumark-Nord region (Saxony-Anhalt)” is funded by the Deutsche Forchungsgemeinschaft (DFG) (GA 683/9-1)

Oxygen isotope analyses of Equus teeth evidences early Eemian and early Weichselian palaeotemperatures at the Middle Palaeolithic site of Neumark-Nord 2, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

We thank Annabell Reiner (MPI-EVA) for technical and practical support with preparation of samples and Bernd Steinhilber for the oxygen isotope measurements of the silver phosphate samples at the Institut für Geowissenschaften (Universität Tübingen); Thanks to the Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie, Sachsen-Anhalt, and Landesmuseum Sachsen-Anhalt in Halle for providing samples; and to Geoff Smith (RGZM Monrepos and MPI-EVA) for comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. Financial support for the Neumark-Nord 2 excavations was provided by the Lausitzer Mitteldeutsche Braunkohlengesellschaft mbH, the Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt (Harald Meller, Susanne Friederich), the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, the Leids Universiteits Fonds “Campagne voor Leiden” program and the NetherlandsOrganization for Scientific Research (N.W.O.). The isotope research was funded by the Max Planck Institute and a Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst Junior Research Grant to KB (ref: A0970923). Thanks also to the University of Aberdeen, and The Leverhulme Trust (RPG-2017-410) for financial and professional support during this project and preparation of the manuscript. TT acknowledges funding by the German National Science foundation in the framework of the Emmy Noether Program (DFG grant TU 148/2-1 “Bone Geochemistry”).Peer reviewedPostprin

Middle Pleistocene protein sequences from the rhinoceros genus Stephanorhinus and the phylogeny of extant and extinct Middle/Late Pleistocene Rhinocerotidae

Background: Ancient protein sequences are increasingly used to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships between extinct and extant mammalian taxa. Here, we apply these recent developments to Middle Pleistocene bone specimens of the rhinoceros genus Stephanorhinus. No biomolecular sequence data is currently available for this genus, leaving phylogenetic hypotheses on its evolutionary relationships to extant and extinct rhinoceroses untested. Furthermore, recent phylogenies based on Rhinocerotidae (partial or complete) mitochondrial DNA sequences differ in the placement of the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Therefore, studies utilising ancient protein sequences from Middle Pleistocene contexts have the potential to provide further insights into the phylogenetic relationships between extant and extinct species, including Stephanorhinus and Dicerorhinus. Methods: ZooMS screening (zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry) was performed on several Late and Middle Pleistocene specimens from the genus Stephanorhinus, subsequently followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to obtain ancient protein sequences from a Middle Pleistocene Stephanorhinus specimen.We performed parallel analysis on a Late Pleistocene woolly rhinoceros specimen and extant species of rhinoceroses, resulting in the availability of protein sequence data for five extant species and two extinct genera. Phylogenetic analysis additionally included all extant Perissodactyla genera (Equus, Tapirus), and was conducted using Bayesian (MrBayes) and maximum-likelihood (RAxML) methods. Results: Various ancient proteins were identified in both the Middle and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros samples. Protein degradation and proteome complexity are consistent with an endogenous origin of the identified proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of informative proteins resolved the Perissodactyla phylogeny in agreement with previous studies in regards to the placement of the families Equidae, Tapiridae, and Rhinocerotidae. Stephanorhinus is shown to be most closely related to the genera Coelodonta and Dicerorhinus. The protein sequence data further places the Sumatran rhino in a clade together with the genus Rhinoceros, opposed to forming a clade with the black and white rhinoceros species. Discussion: The first biomolecular dataset available for Stephanorhinus places this genus together with the extinct genus Coelodonta and the extant genus Dicerorhinus. This is in agreement with morphological studies, although we are unable to resolve the order of divergence between these genera based on the protein sequences available. Our data supports the placement of the genus Dicerorhinus in a clade together with extant Rhinoceros species. Finally, the availability of protein sequence data for both extinct European rhinoceros genera allows future investigations into their geographic distribution and extinction chronologies.The project “Hominin subsistence strategies during the Middle Pleistocene in Scho¨ningen” is a co-operation between Monrepos Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution (RGZM), Johannes Gutenberg-Universita¨t Mainz, and the Niedersa¨chsisches Landesamt fu¨r Denkmalpflege, supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (GA 683/9-1). This research was supported financially by the Max Planck Society. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

When lithics hit bones: evaluating the potential of a multifaceted experimental protocol to illuminate middle palaeolithic weapon technology

Recent zooarchaeological and isotope analyses have largely settled the debate surrounding Neanderthal hunting capacities, repeatedly demonstrating their successful acquisition of large ungulates. Nevertheless, the functional identification of individual tools as hunting weapons remains a methodological challenge. In-depth studies have focussed mainly on small subsets of lithic artefacts from selected assemblages assessing features of breakage patterns, retouch, shape and use wear. Studies focussing on associated hunting lesions are rarer and often focus on reconstructing very specific bone surface marks encountered in the archaeological record. This study aims to add to our understanding of the formation and characteristics of projectile impact marks (PIMs) on bone through a series of highly monitored, replicative experiments, using thrusting and throwing spears with replica Levallois points into two wild pig carcasses. In total, 152 shots were made, and for each a series of attributes was recorded, including velocity and location of impact. Subsequent quantitative analyses focussed on understanding the various factors underlying the formation of different types of projectile impact marks. These experiments demonstrate that PIM formation results from the properties of both the impacting projectile and bone element. PIMs can signal impacts caused by different delivery methods but only on some parts of the skeleton. These results are contextualised in relation to the occurrence and recognition of Palaeolithic PIMs and patterns of Neanderthal behaviour. These experiments are only a first step in improving the recognition of these signatures in the archaeological record and providing better insights into understanding of the mechanisms of Neanderthal hunting

Large-scale processing of within-bone nutrients by Neanderthals, 125,000 years ago

Diet played a key role in human evolution, making the study of past diet and subsistence strategies a crucial research topic within paleoanthropology. Lipids are a crucial resource for hunter-gatherers, especially for foragers whose diet is based heavily on animal foods. Recent foragers have expended substantial amounts of energy to obtain this resource, including time-consuming production of bone grease, a resource intensification practice thus far only documented for Upper Paleolithic populations. We present archaeological data from the lake landscape of Neumark-Nord (Germany), where Last Interglacial Neanderthals processed at least 172 large mammals at a water’s edge site. Their (partial) carcasses were transported to this location for the extraction of within-bone nutrients, particularly bone grease. This “fat factory” constitutes a well-documented case of grease rendering predating the Upper Paleolithic, with the special task location devoted to extraction of nutritionally important lipids forming an important addition to our knowledge of Neanderthal adaptations

Fires at Neumark-Nord 2, Germany: An analysis of fire proxies from a Last Interglacial Middle Palaeolithic basin site

Few sites with evidence for fire use are known from the Last Interglacial in Europe. Hearth features are rarely preserved, probably as a result of post-depositional processes. The small postglacial basins (<300 m in diameter) that dominate the sedimentary context of the Eemian record in Europe are high-resolution environmental archives often containing charcoal particles. This case study presents the macroscopic charcoal record of the Neumark-Nord 2 basin, Germany, and the correlation of this record with the distinct find levels of the basin margin that also contain thermally altered archaeological material. Increased charcoal quantities are shown to correspond to phases of hominin presence-a pattern that fits best with recurrent anthropogenic fires within the watershed. This research shows the potential of small basin localities in the reconstruction of local fire histories, where clear archaeological features like hearths are missing