A city and its landscape across time: Samarkand in the ancient Sogdiana (Uzbekistan)

Located in the heartland of Central Asia, Samarkand has always been an economic, cultural, ethnic, linguistic and religious hub along the ancient Silk Road. A regional approach, based on a GIS remote sensing assessment followed by field validation, was used here to reconstruct the urban evolution of Samarkand in connection with its hinterland. The basic archaeological features in the landscape (anthropic mounds, canals and burials) allowed us to reconstruct the main forms of land use and resource exploitation according to site distribution and chronology. If Samarkand was established as early as the Achaemenid period (late 6th century BCE), the evidence dated to that time from its hinterland is scarce. A first significant increase occurred during the post-Hellenistic centuries (3rd-1st centuries BCE), and reached the peak at the time of the most intense trade along the Silk Road just before the major changes following the Arab conquest of the early 8th century CE. Data also demonstrated how the development of Samarkand must be closely linked with a proper exploitation of its territory. A massive and complex irrigation system in the floodplain ensured the supply of water necessary to develop extensive farming and daily-life activities, while rain-fed foothills were used as pastures

Quantitative GIS-based analysis of archaeological data of the archaic state of Tell Mardikh/Ebla (3rdmillennium BC): The Big-DEA project

The paper provides an overview on Big-DEA, a multidisciplinary project aimed at developing a comprehensive multi-level explanatory model for the development of an archaic State in the ancient Near East, using the exceptional case of Tell Mardikh, ancient Ebla (Syria), during the second half of the 3rd millennium. The project's goal is the reconstruction of the archaic state organization through an integrated analysis of archaeological and epigraphic data. The interaction between humanities and hard sciences is adopted in order to build a multi-tier explanatory model regarding the territory under the control of the Ebla kingdom, considering anthropic and environmental data deriving from excavations, survey and textual sources. The way to managing and study such a large Big Data archive, which includes different datasets, is itself the main challenge of the project: the creation of a dedicated relational database management system (RDBMS) functional to the implementation of the available GIS platform and the development of an appropriate simulation framework

On the surface and beyond. Degradation morphologies affecting plant ash‐based archaeological glass from Kafir Kala (Samarkand, Uzbekistan)

The study focuses on an assemblage of glass finds from the citadel of Kafir Kala, Uzbekistan, located along one of the major Eurasian branches of the “Silk Roads” with a consistent occupation between the 8th and 12th century CE. Glass fragments for this study were selected based on marked surface alterations they showed, with stratified deposits of different thickness and colours. Starting from a preliminary observation under Optical Microscope, fragments were clustered into four main groups based on the surface appearance of the alterations; Scanning Electron Microscopy investigations of the stratigraphy of the alteration products were then carried out, to evaluate micro‐textural, morphological and compositional features. Data from the analyses allowed identifying preferential patterns of development of the various degradation morphologies, linkable to compositional alterations of the glass due to burial environment and the alkali leaching action of the water. Iridescence, opaque weathering (at times associated with black stains), and blackening were identified as recurring degradation morphologies; as all but one sample were made of plant ash‐based glass, results show no specific correlation between glass composition and the occurrence of one or the other degradation pattern, often found together. Framed in a broad scenario, the paper aims to set the basis for the development of a study approach dedicated to the degradation morphologies affecting archaeological glasses, a topic still lacking systematisation and in‐depth dedicated literature

Potential of deep learning segmentation for the extraction of archaeological features from historical map series

Historical maps present a unique depiction of past landscapes, providing evidence for a wide range of information such as settlement distribution, past land use, natural resources, transport networks, toponymy and other natural and cultural data within an explicitly spatial context. Maps produced before the expansion of large‐scale mechanized agriculture reflect a landscape that is lost today. Of particular interest to us is the great quantity of archaeologically relevant information that these maps recorded, both deliberately and incidentally. Despite the importance of the information they contain, researchers have only recently begun to automatically digitize and extract data from such maps as coherent information, rather than manually examine a raster image. However, these new approaches have focused on specific types of information that cannot be used directly for archaeological or heritage purposes. This paper provides a proof of concept of the application of deep learning techniques to extract archaeological information from historical maps in an automated manner. Early twentieth century colonial map series have been chosen, as they provide enough time depth to avoid many recent large‐scale landscape modifications and cover very large areas (comprising several countries). The use of common symbology and conventions enhance the applicability of the method. The results show deep learning to be an efficient tool for the recovery of georeferenced, archaeologically relevant information that is represented as conventional signs, line‐drawings and text in historical maps. The method can provide excellent results when an adequate training dataset has been gathered and is therefore at its best when applied to the large map series that can supply such information. The deep learning approaches described here open up the possibility to map sites and features across entire map series much more quickly and coherently than other available methods, opening up the potential to reconstruct archaeological landscapes at continental scales

Association of FOBT-assessed faecal Hb content with colonic lesions detected in the Florence screening programme

We assessed the correlation between quantitative results of immunological faecal occult blood testing (I-FOBT) and colonic lesions (191 colorectal cancers, 890 adenomas) detected at colonoscopy in 2597 FOBT+ (cutoff 100 ng ml−1 Hb) subjects. At univariate analysis, a higher average faecal Hb content was significantly associated with male gender (P=0.003), age (P=0.02), and colonoscopy findings (P=0.000). Among adenomas, higher faecal Hb content was significantly associated with size (P=0.0000), presence of severe dysplasia (P=0.0001), presence of villous component (P=0.0002), and location in the left colon (P=0.003). At multivariate analysis adjusting for potential confounders, age (P=0.03), size (P=0.0000), and location in the left colon (P=0.0005) were confirmed as having an independent association with higher faecal Hb content. Immunological FOBT is confirmed to be a specific screening test to detect cancer and adenoma, with a low positivity rate (3.7%) and a high positive predictive value (41.5%). Faecal Hb content is significantly higher for those lesions (cancer and high-risk adenomas) screening is aimed at detecting

Immunochemical faecal occult blood test: number of samples and positivity cutoff. What is the best strategy for colorectal cancer screening?

Immunochemical faecal occult blood tests have shown a greater sensitivity than guaiac test in colorectal cancer screening, but optimal number of samples and cutoff have still to be defined. The aim of this multicentric study was to evaluate the performance of immunochemical-based screening strategies according to different positivity thresholds (80, 100, 120 ng ml−1) and single vs double sampling (one, at least one, or both positive samples) using 1-day sample with cutoff at 100 ng ml−1 as the reference strategy. A total of 20 596 subjects aged 50–69 years were enrolled from Italian population-based screening programmes. Positivity rate was 4.5% for reference strategy and 8.0 and 2.0% for the most sensitive and the most specific strategy, respectively. Cancer detection rate of reference strategy was 2.8‰, and ranged between 2.1 and 3.4‰ in other strategies; reference strategy detected 15.6‰ advanced adenomas (range=10.0–22.5‰). The number needed to scope to find a cancer or an advanced adenoma was lower than 2 (1.5–1.7) for the most specific strategies, whereas it was 2.4–2.7, according to different thresholds, for the most sensitive ones. Different strategies seem to have a greater impact on adenomas rather than on cancer detection rate. The study provides information when deciding screening protocols and to adapt them to local resources

Incidence trends of colorectal cancer in the early 2000s in Italy. Figures from the IMPATTO study on colorectal cancer screening

We utilised the IMPATTO study's archives to describe the 2000-2008 colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence rate trends in Italy, once screening programmes based on the faecal immunochemical test were implemented in different areas. Data on CRCs diagnosed in Italy from 2000 to 2008 in subjects aged 40-79 years were collected by 23 cancer registries. Incidence rate trends were evaluated as a whole and by macro-area (North-Centre and South-Islands), presence of a screening programme, sex, ten-year age class, anatomic site, stage at diagnosis, and pattern of diagnosis (screen-detected, non-screen-detected). The annual percent change (APC) of incidence rate trends, with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI), were computed. The study included 46,857 CRCs diagnosed in subjects aged 40-79 years, of which 2,806 were screendetected. The incidence rates in the North-Centre were higher than in the South and on the Islands. During the study period, screening programmes had been implemented only in the North-Centre and had a significant effect on incidence rates, with an initial sharp increase in incidence, followed by a decrease that started in the 3rd-4th years of screening. These incidence rate trends were exclusively due to modifications in the rates of stage I cases. After screening programmes started, incidence increased in all anatomic sites, particularly in the distal colon. The differential figures introduced by the implementation of screening programmes warrant a continuous surveillance of CRC incidence and mortality trends to monitor the impact of screening at a national level

Characteristics of the colorectal cancers diagnosed in the early 2000s in Italy. Figures from the IMPATTO study on colorectal cancer screening

The impact of organized screening programmes on colorectal cancer (CRC) can be observed at a population level only several years after the implementation of screening. We compared CRC characteristics by diagnostic modality (screen-detected, non-screen-detected) as an early outcome to monitor screening programme effectiveness. Data on CRCs diagnosed in Italy from 2000 to 2008 were collected by several cancer registries. Linkage with screening datasets made it possible to divide the cases by geographic area, implementation of screening, and modality of diagnosis (screen-detected, non-screen-detected).We compared the main characteristics of the different subgroups of CRCs through multivariate logistic regression models. The study included 23,668 CRCs diagnosed in subjects aged 50-69 years, of which 11.9%were screendetected (N=2,806), all from the North-Centre of Italy. Among screen-detected CRCs, we observed a higher proportion of males, of cases in the distal colon, and a higher mean age of the patients. Compared with pre-screening cases, screen-detected CRCs showed a better distribution by stage at diagnosis (OR for stage III or IV: 0.40, 95%CI: 0.36-0.44) and grading (OR for poorly differentiated CRCs was 0.86, 95%CI: 0.75-1.00). Screen-detected CRCs have more favourable prognostic characteristics than non-screen-detected cases. A renewed effort to implement screening programmes throughout the entire country is recommended

Samarcanda

Il nome Samarcanda \ue8 forse uno dei pi\uf9 evocativi di tutto l\u2019Oriente, tanto grande \ue8 stata in Occidente la fama di questa citt\ue0 nei secoli scorsi. Alla base di questo glorioso passato sono senza dubbio gli splendidi monumenti dell\u2019et\ue0 Timuride, che ancora oggi, pur se pesantemente restaurati, stupiscono per lo splendore dell\u2019architettura e delle sue decorazioni, e rappresentano la principale attrazione dei turisti provenienti da tutto il mondo. Poco, o nulla, si sa invece della Maracanda di Alessandro Magno, una delle citt\ue0 pi\uf9 importanti e pi\uf9 affascinanti dell\u2019intera Asia Centrale, meglio conosciuta come Afrasiab dal nome del famoso eroe dell\u2019epos iranico, e che oggi si presenta come un\u2019enorme distesa di argilla cruda di oltre 200 ha a nord-est dell\u2019attuale centro urbano. Questo luogo \ue8 stato per secoli il cuore pulsante degli scambi commerciali tra Oriente ed Occidente, sopravvivendo alla conquista araba dell\u2019VIII secolo ma non a quella, ben pi\uf9 devastante, delle truppe mongole di Gengis Khan nel 1220. La possibilit\ue0 di conoscere pi\uf9 a fondo il passato di Samarcanda \ue8 aumentata notevolmente nell\u2019ultimo decennio grazie alle ricerche avviate dall\u2019Universit\ue0 di Bologna e dall\u2019IsIAO di Roma in collaborazione con l\u2019Istituto di Archeologia dell\u2019Accademia delle Scienze dell\u2019Uzbekistan. Partendo dal concetto che non esiste una citt\ue0 senza il proprio territorio, l\u2019obiettivo principale del progetto \ue8 quello di studiare la storia di Samarcanda attraverso le molteplici relazioni che legano il grande centro economico, politico e militare con il suo entroterra. Famosa fin dall\u2019antichit\ue0 come crocevia dei commerci tra l\u2019Asia e il Mediterraneo, la reale ricchezza di Samarcanda era, ed \ue8 tuttora, l\u2019agricoltura: le condizioni climatiche continentali, l\u2019abbondanza di acqua e il suolo fertile rendono infatti quest\u2019area una delle pi\uf9 produttive dell\u2019Asia Centrale e di tutto il mondo antico. Lo sviluppo dell\u2019agricoltura nelle pianure alluvionali lungo il medio corso dello Zeravshan e l\u2019allevamento nella steppa circostante creano una base economica e sociale che ha nei bazar della citt\ue0 e dei villaggi sparsi nel territorio il comune denominatore e punto d\u2019incontro tra il mondo degli agricoltori sedentari della pianura e quello dei nomadi allevatori della steppa. Grazie all\u2019impiego delle moderne tecnologie e all\u2019approccio multidisciplinare che agli archeologi affianca altri specialisti quali geologi, agronomi, ingegneri e storici, \ue8 ora possibile comprendere meglio le dinamiche insediamentali e le trasformazioni avvenute nel corso dei secoli nell\u2019oasi di Samarcanda. Le ricerche sono state condotte su due distinti livelli. Da una parte, le ricognizioni territoriali finalizzate allo studio dell\u2019interazione storica tra uomo e ambiente; dall\u2019altra, lo studio dettagliato di alcuni siti-chiave, peculiari per posizione geografica e/o pertinenza storico-culturale. Nel corso delle indagini sono stati censiti oltre mille siti archeologi, la maggior parte dei quali databili ai periodi Kushana (II secolo a.C. \u2013 II secolo d.C.) e Sogdiano-Altomedievale (V-VIII secolo d.C). L\u2019incredibile sviluppo che caratterizza l\u2019oasi di Samarcanda in questo periodo \ue8 spiegabile non solo con i fruttuosi commerci lungo la Via della Seta ma, soprattutto, con l\u2019intenso sfruttamento agricolo di questo territorio, reso possibile da una fitta rete di canali per l\u2019irrigazione e da una serie di opere idrauliche che hanno permesso di convertire la steppa in un\u2019area dall\u2019elevato potenziale agricolo. Nella parte meridionale dell\u2019oasi, il sistema era basato sul Dargom, un canale di oltre 100 km che le recenti indagine geologiche, combinate allo studio dei principali insediamenti distribuiti lungo il canale stesso, attribuiscono proprio al periodo Kushana, facendo supporre che, gi\ue0 intorno al I secolo a.C., gran parte dell\u2019entroterra di Samarcanda fosse coltivato in maniera estensiva e con diverse colture, da quelle cerealicole (pianura) a quelle frutticole (pedemontana) e orticole (in prossimit\ue0 delle abitazioni e dei villaggi) La maggior parte delle scoperte si riferiscono alla storia del popolamento agricolo del territorio, che ha lasciato tracce sia negli insediamenti in argilla cruda (altres\uec noti come tepa) sopraelevati rispetto al naturale piano di campagna, sia nella rete di canali che, ancora oggi dopo oltre 2000 anni, garantiscono l\u2019approvvigionamento idrico della citt\ue0 e del suo territorio. Lo stesso non si pu\uf2 dire per le testimonianze degli allevatori delle steppe. Caratterizzati da uno stile di vita semi-nomadico e dall\u2019impiego di materiale altamente deperibile (come il legno e i tessuti per la costruzione delle yurte), archeologicamente le tracce degli allevatori sono riscontrabili solo nelle sepolture a tumulo (kurgan) che occupano l\u2019intera fascia pedemontana del massiccio del Karatyube, in posizioni strategiche per controllare e marcare le zone di pascolo nella steppa sottostante. In base alla localizzazione dei siti e alla divisione cronologica degli stessi, \ue8 possibile ipotizzare che vi fossero due principali rotte locali della Via della Seta che collegavano il medio Zeravshan con la valle del Kashkadarya a sud. La prima, probabilmente gi\ue0 attiva in epoca Achemenide (VI-IV secolo a.C.), era pi\uf9 lunga perch\ue9 aggirava il massiccio del Karatyube e percorreva quella che ora \ue8 la steppa a sud di Samarcanda, passando da centri come Jam, Sazagan e Koytepa. La seconda, di epoca Altomedievale, era pi\uf9 diretta ma anche pi\uf9 difficoltosa perch\ue9 attraversava il Karatyube dal passo di Amankutan (1800 m slm) e giungeva a Samarcanda dopo aver attraversato il Dargom all\u2019altezza di Kafir Kal