Evaluation of large-scale unsupervised classification of New Caledonia reef ecosystems using Landsat 7 ETM+ imagery

The capacity of the Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus sensor to classify the shallow benthic ecosytems of New Caledonia (South Pacific) is tested using a novel unsupervised classification method. The classes are defined by using a set of multiple spectral decision rules based on the image spectral bands. A general model is applied to the entire Southwest lagoon (5500 km(2)) and tested on three representative sites: a section of the barrier reef, a cay reef flat rich in corals, and a cay reef flat rich in algae and seagrass beds. In the latter one, the classification results are compared with a locally optimized model, with aerial color photographs and extensive ground-truthed observations. Results show that a reconnaissance of the main benthic habitats in shallow areas (<5 m depth) is possible, at a geomorphological scale for coral reef structure and at a habitat scale for seagrass beds. However, results directly issued from the model must be cautiously interpreted according to empirical spatial rules, especially to avoid confusion between coral slopes and shallow dense seagrass.Le but de cette étude est de tester la capacité des images Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus à discriminer les principales classes d’habitats benthiques rencontrées dans les parties peu profondes du système récifal et lagonaire de Nouvelle-Calédonie (Pacifique Sud). Une méthode originale de classification non-supervisée est proposée. Les habitats benthiques correspondent à une combinaison de plusieurs règles de décision établies à partir des bandes radiométriques Landsat. Cette modélisation statistique des habitats benthiques est appliquée au lagon sud-ouest de Nouvelle-Calédonie (5500 km2). Les résultats sont testés sur trois sites témoins contrastés: un platier de récif barrière, un platier d’îlot riche en corail et un platier d’îlot riche en herbiers/algueraies. Pour ce dernier, le résultat est comparé à celui d’un modèle optimisé, construit à échelle locale et validé à partir de photographies aériennes et d’observations de terrain. Les résultats montrent qu’une reconnaissance des différentes classes benthiques est possible pour des fonds peu profonds (< 5 m de profondeur), à l’échelle géomorphologique pour les structures récifales et à l’échelle des habitats pour les herbiers. Toutefois, les résultats bruts du modèle doivent être interprétés en fonction de critères spatiaux pour corriger les confusions entre certaines classes, notamment entre les pentes coralliennes et les herbiers denses

Habitats as surrogates of taxonomic and functional fish assemblages in coral reef ecosystems : a critical analysis of factors driving effectiveness

Species check-lists are helpful to establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and protect local richness, endemicity, rarity, and biodiversity in general. However, such exhaustive taxonomic lists (i.e., true surrogate of biodiversity) require extensive and expensive censuses, and the use of estimator surrogates (e.g., habitats) is an appealing alternative. In truth, surrogate effectiveness appears from the literature highly variable both in marine and terrestrial ecosystems, making it difficult to provide practical recommendations for managers. Here, we evaluate how the biodiversity reference data set and its inherent bias can influence effectiveness. Specifically, we defined habitats by geomorphology, rugosity, and benthic cover and architecture criteria, and mapped them with satellite images for a New-Caledonian site. Fish taxonomic and functional lists were elaborated from Underwater Visual Censuses, stratified according to geomorphology and exposure. We then tested if MPA networks designed to maximize habitat richness, diversity and rarity could also effectively maximize fish richness, diversity, and rarity. Effectiveness appeared highly sensitive to the fish census design itself, in relation to the type of habitat map used and the scale of analysis. Spatial distribution of habitats (estimator surrogate's distribution), quantity and location of fish census stations (target surrogate's sampling), and random processes in the MPA design all affected effectiveness to the point that one small change in the data set could lead to opposite conclusions. We suggest that previous conclusions on surrogacy effectiveness, either positive or negative, marine or terrestrial, should be considered with caution, except in instances where very dense data sets were used without pseudo-replication. Although this does not rule out the validity of using surrogates of species lists for conservation planning, the critical joint examination of both target and estimator surrogates is needed for every case study

The importance of fishing grounds as perceived by local communities can be undervalued by measures of socioeconomic cost used in conservation planning

Marine reserve placement must account for the importance of places for resource use to minimize negative socioeconomic impacts and improve compliance. It is often assumed that placing marine reserves in locations that minimize lost fishing opportunities will reduce impacts on coastal communities, but the influence of the fishing data used on this outcome remains poorly understood. In the Madang Lagoon (Papua New Guinea), we compared three types of proxies for conservation costs to local fishing communities. We developed two types of proxies of opportunity costs commonly used in marine conservation planning: current fishing activity with fisher surveys (n = 68) and proximity from shore. We also developed proxies based on areas of importance for fishing as perceived by surveyed households (n = 52). Although all proxies led to different configurations of potential marine reserves, the three types of cost data reflect different aspects of importance for fishing and should be used as complementary measures

La macroflore marine de l'archipel des Marquises

Until the Pakaihi i te Moana 2011 expedition, there were only ten known species of marine plants from the Marquesas Islands. Following this survey, 144 additional records (excluding Corallinales and Peyssonnelia spp.) were identified from the nine islands studied. These include 94 Rhodophyta (red algae), 38 Chlorophyta (green algae) and 12 Phaeophyceae (brown algae), with several undescribed species. Due to the dynamic water motion around these wave-swept islands, the dominant flora, from the surface until about 40 meters depth, consists of red encrusting coralline algae. The broad types of habitats seen include sedimentary plains, rubble, coralline habitats dominated by the genera Porites and Millepora, bare vertical drop-offs and escarpments, and algal beds. The latter consist mainly of several species of Halimeda, notably H. distorta, H. melanesica, H. heteromorpha and H. discoidea. Species richness varies within the archipelago and from one island to the other, with a higher number of species in the central and southern islands. Half of the species were recorded only from a single island, and only 16% of the species were recorded from four or more of the nine surveyed islands. The islands of Ua Huka and Nuku Hiva show the highest diversity, notably because of a greater number of habitats, including rock pools and crevices of the basalt ledges. It is in these habitats, that are particularly rich in algal diversity, that the inhabitants of the Marquesas still collect today various edible species for use as food. The Marquesas Islands stand out from the rest of Polynesia by quite a number of aspects, and show biogeographical affinities with the Hawaiian Islands, as well as the Eastern Pacific (Guadelupe, Revillagigedo and Galápagos islands). The natural and ecological characteristics of the marine flora, together with traditional cultural practices still very much alive today, impart a special place to this archipelago within Polynesian society. These unique characteristics contribute towards supporting a regional conservation program

Sensing coral reef connectivity pathways from space

Coral reefs rely on inter-habitat connectivity to maintain gene flow, biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Coral reef communities of the Red Sea exhibit remarkable genetic homogeneity across most of the Arabian Peninsula coastline, with a genetic break towards the southern part of the basin. While previous studies have attributed these patterns to environmental heterogeneity, we hypothesize that they may also emerge as a result of dynamic circulation flow; yet, such linkages remain undemonstrated. Here, we integrate satellite-derived biophysical observations, particle dispersion model simulations, genetic population data and ship-borne in situ profiles to assess reef connectivity in the Red Sea. We simulated long-term (>20 yrs.) connectivity patterns driven by remotely-sensed sea surface height and evaluated results against estimates of genetic distance among populations of anemonefish, Amphiprion bicinctus, along the eastern Red Sea coastline. Predicted connectivity was remarkably consistent with genetic population data, demonstrating that circulation features (eddies, surface currents) formulate physical pathways for gene flow. The southern basin has lower physical connectivity than elsewhere, agreeing with known genetic structure of coral reef organisms. The central Red Sea provides key source regions, meriting conservation priority. Our analysis demonstrates a cost-effective tool to estimate biophysical connectivity remotely, supporting coastal management in data-limited regions

Global Diversity of Brittle Stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

This review presents a comprehensive overview of the current status regarding the global diversity of the echinoderm class Ophiuroidea, focussing on taxonomy and distribution patterns, with brief introduction to their anatomy, biology, phylogeny, and palaeontological history. A glossary of terms is provided. Species names and taxonomic decisions have been extracted from the literature and compiled in The World Ophiuroidea Database, part of the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS). Ophiuroidea, with 2064 known species, are the largest class of Echinodermata. A table presents 16 families with numbers of genera and species. The largest are Amphiuridae (467), Ophiuridae (344 species) and Ophiacanthidae (319 species). A biogeographic analysis for all world oceans and all accepted species was performed, based on published distribution records. Approximately similar numbers of species were recorded from the shelf (n = 1313) and bathyal depth strata (1297). The Indo-Pacific region had the highest species richness overall (825 species) and at all depths. Adjacent regions were also relatively species rich, including the North Pacific (398), South Pacific (355) and Indian (316) due to the presence of many Indo-Pacific species that partially extended into these regions. A secondary region of enhanced species richness was found in the West Atlantic (335). Regions of relatively low species richness include the Arctic (73 species), East Atlantic (118), South America (124) and Antarctic (126)

Interaction between Coastal and Oceanic Ecosystems of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean through Predator-Prey Relationship Studies

The Western and Central Pacific Ocean sustains the highest tuna production in the world. This province is also characterized by many islands and a complex bathymetry that induces specific current circulation patterns with the potential to create a high degree of interaction between coastal and oceanic ecosystems. Based on a large dataset of oceanic predator stomach contents, our study used generalized linear models to explore the coastal-oceanic system interaction by analyzing predator-prey relationship. We show that reef organisms are a frequent prey of oceanic predators. Predator species such as albacore (Thunnus alalunga) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) frequently consume reef prey with higher probability of consumption closer to land and in the western part of the Pacific Ocean. For surface-caught-predators consuming reef prey, this prey type represents about one third of the diet of predators smaller than 50 cm. The proportion decreases with increasing fish size. For predators caught at depth and consuming reef prey, the proportion varies with predator species but generally represents less than 10%. The annual consumption of reef prey by the yellowfin tuna population was estimated at 0.8±0.40CV million tonnes or 2.17×1012±0.40CV individuals. This represents 6.1%±0.17CV in weight of their diet. Our analyses identify some of the patterns of coastal-oceanic ecosystem interactions at a large scale and provides an estimate of annual consumption of reef prey by oceanic predators

Comparison of Marine Spatial Planning Methods in Madagascar Demonstrates Value of Alternative Approaches

The Government of Madagascar plans to increase marine protected area coverage by over one million hectares. To assist this process, we compare four methods for marine spatial planning of Madagascar's west coast. Input data for each method was drawn from the same variables: fishing pressure, exposure to climate change, and biodiversity (habitats, species distributions, biological richness, and biodiversity value). The first method compares visual color classifications of primary variables, the second uses binary combinations of these variables to produce a categorical classification of management actions, the third is a target-based optimization using Marxan, and the fourth is conservation ranking with Zonation. We present results from each method, and compare the latter three approaches for spatial coverage, biodiversity representation, fishing cost and persistence probability. All results included large areas in the north, central, and southern parts of western Madagascar. Achieving 30% representation targets with Marxan required twice the fish catch loss than the categorical method. The categorical classification and Zonation do not consider targets for conservation features. However, when we reduced Marxan targets to 16.3%, matching the representation level of the “strict protection” class of the categorical result, the methods show similar catch losses. The management category portfolio has complete coverage, and presents several management recommendations including strict protection. Zonation produces rapid conservation rankings across large, diverse datasets. Marxan is useful for identifying strict protected areas that meet representation targets, and minimize exposure probabilities for conservation features at low economic cost. We show that methods based on Zonation and a simple combination of variables can produce results comparable to Marxan for species representation and catch losses, demonstrating the value of comparing alternative approaches during initial stages of the planning process. Choosing an appropriate approach ultimately depends on scientific and political factors including representation targets, likelihood of adoption, and persistence goals