Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams

Within thunderstorms electrons can gain energies of up to hundred(s) of MeV. These electrons can create X-rays and gamma-rays as Bremsstrahlung when they collide with air molecules. Here we calculate the distribution of angles between incident electrons and emitted photons as a function of electron and photon energy. We derive these doubly differential cross-sections by integrating analytically over the triply differential cross-sections derived by Bethe and Heitler; this is appropriate for light atoms like nitrogen and oxygen (Z=7,8) if the energy of incident and emitted electron is larger than 1 keV. We compare our results with the approximations and cross section used by other authors. We also discuss some simplifying limit cases, and we derive some simple approximation for the most probable scattering angle. We also provide cross sections for the production of electron positron pairs from energetic photons when they interact with air molecules. This process is related to the Bremsstrahlung process by some physical symmetry. Therefore the results above can be transferred to predictions on the angles between incident photon and emitted positron, again as a function of photon and positron energy. We present the distribution of angles and again a simple approximation for the most probable scattering angle. Our results are given as analytical expressions as well as in the form of a C++ code that can be directly be implemented into Monte Carlo codes.Comment: 75 pages, 19 figures, 1 table, 1 source cod

Review of recent results on streamer discharges and discussion of their relevance for sprites and lightning

It is by now well understood that large sprite discharges at the low air densities of the mesosphere are physically similar to small streamer discharges in air at standard temperature and pressure. This similarity is based on Townsend scaling with air density. First the theoretical basis of Townsend scaling and a list of six possible corrections to scaling are discussed; then the experimental evidence for the similarity between streamers and sprites is reviewed. We then discuss how far present sprite and streamer theory has been developed, and we show how streamer experiments can be interpreted as sprite simulations. We review those results of recent streamer research that are relevant for sprites and other forms of atmospheric electricity and discuss their implications for sprite understanding. These include the large range of streamer diameters and velocities and the overall 3D morphology with branching, interaction and reconnection, the dependence on voltage and polarity, the electron energies in the streamer head and the consecutive chemical efficiency and hard radiation. New theoretical and experimental results concern measurements of streamer spectra in air, the density dependence of streamer heating (hot leaders are unlikely at 80 km altitude and cold streamers are unlikely in liquids), and a discussion of the influence of magnetic fields on thermal electrons or on energetic electrons in streamers or sprites.Comment: 38 pages, 4 figures, article accepted for publication in J. Geophys. Res. - Space Physic

Legal experiment and law-making experience as special models of legal regulation: technique, practice, limits

Introduction. The article is devoted to the general theoretical analysis and the correlation between the phenomena «legal experiment» and «law-making experience». The author makes and argues a hypothesis about the dialectical connection of experimentation and empirical approach within the framework of law-making and law enforcement processes, expressed in the elements of their unity, difference, interaction and existing contradictions. The aim: to make up for the absence in legal science and practice of well shaped idea of the experimentation technologies application and the introduction of empirically obtained data in the framework of law-making and law enforcement; to identify their characteristics and specify risks caused by the lack of methodology for conducting and evaluating the results. Methodology. A variety of scientific knowledge tools is used, the main ones being the dialectical method, as well as the formal-legal approach carried out for the analysis and interpretation of the norms of legislation, judicial and other law enforcement practices. Results. Substantive and meaningful consideration of the legal experiment and legal experience was carried out, both from the standpoint of the doctrine of law and modern law enforcement practice and legislation. The analysis of general scientific and reference literature, current normative legal acts and official law enforcement documents showed that the legal experiment is based on the establishment of exemptions and (or) additions to the general command of power, is accessory to the main legal regulation. When establishing the elements of similarity and difference of legal experiment and law-making experience, aspects of their interaction and existing contradictions, their independent categorical and institutional nature is proved, specific qualities are highlighted. Conclusion. In legal doctrine, law enforcement practice and legislative system, it is necessary to clearly distinguish the understanding and implementation of legal experiments and the application of experience in law-making by: defining the method of their organization and conduct, developing algorithms for the creation of an experimental legal norm, establishing the design of the mechanism for implementation of legal experience, as well as methods for predicting the results of trial legal regulations. The steps taken should contribute not only to increasing the effectiveness of legal regulation, but also to reducing social and economic losses arising from the hasty legal intermediation of non-standard social relations, unsuccessful law-making steps, as well as reducing the risks of tentative legal requirements.</jats:p

Honorary rights and obligations: doctrine, practice, technology

The article is devoted to general theory analysis of legal categories «honorary rights» and « honorary obligations». The author puts forward and gives arguments to the hypothesis about the existence of a specific group of legal permissions and obligations which differ from other kinds of rights and legal obligations due to their peculiarities. Significant and informative consideration of «honorary rights» and «honorary obligations» both from the point of doctrine of law and historical and modern legislature as well as law enforcement practice was done. The purpose. To make up in the legal doctrine for the absence of complete idea of honorary rights and obligations as elements of the legal position of separate subjects having special legal status; reveal their characteristic features and define the risks conditioned to be abused. Methodology. Historical way of cognition, philological approach, empirical methods of comparison, descriptions, interpretations, theoretical methods of formal and dialectic logic; private-scientific methods, formal legal method, legal norms interpretation method. Results. Analysis of doctrinal sources of the Russian and International Law, jurisprudence historical landmarks, current normative legal acts, and law enforcement practice showed that honorary rights and obligations are of encouraging and stimulating nature, have an accessory character in relation to the basic opportunities and obligations of the subjects. On the basis of the establishing the elements of similarity and differentiation of honorary right with subjective right of the subject, honorary obligation with legal obligation on the whole, the aspects of their interactions and existing contradictions, an independent categorical and institutional character of honorary rights and obligations is proved, its specific qualities which differentiate&#x0D; it from adjacent legal phenomena are specified. Conclusion. It is necessary to strictly differentiate the understanding and realization of honorary rights and obligations in the system of legislature and law enforcement practice by means of unification and concretization of law provisions using encouraging and stimulating instrumentation, justified and minimum usage of assessment notions and components (prominent merits, prestige, authority, etc.) that serve as the basis for receiving honorary rights and obligations, improving the legal status of subjects with regard to other participants of relation. The steps taken should contribute not only to the increasing the efficiency&#x0D; of regulation of public relations through the system of legal encouragements, stimuli and advantages but decreasing discrimination and corruption risks, the opportunity of subjective discretion associated with granting similar additional opportunities.</jats:p

Grant as a legal form of innovation support: concept, content, difference from related categories

The author analyzes modern trends in state-legal construction in the Russian Federation, one of which is the focus on innovative activities. It is hypothesized that among the most effective forms of supporting innovation is a grant. The concept, essence, functional characteristic of a grant as a kind of privilege is studied. On the basis of the analysis of the legal doctrine, rules of law and law-enforcement practice the intrinsic lines of a grant allowing to carry out difference sides from adjacent categories of jurisprudence and institutes of the legislation, first of all, such as a subsidy, a grant and so forth stand out.</jats:p

Specification of legal norms as a trend of law-making (on the example of penal law)

The authors analyze the current trends in the legislative process of the Russian Federation, one of which is the specification of law. It is hypothesized that, through the specification of legal regulations, a specialization of legislation is formed, among the most common forms of which in the framework of criminal enforcement law are: differentiation, individualization and specificity. On the basis of an analysis of legal doctrine, legislation and law enforcement practice, the authors conclude that the objectives of the specification of prison law include: the specificity of the elements of the legal situation of the convicted person, the addition of conditions and forms of correction, and the consolidation of additional measures to stimulate law-abiding behavior. Problems have been identified in the implementation of specific norms of criminal enforcement law, which slow down the process of reforming the system of execution of punishment, and ways have been proposed to solve them.</jats:p

Legal status of a scientist in the Russian Federation: legal and linguistic aspect

In the article, the authors analyze the modern legal and linguistic structure of the legal status of a scientist, analyze it from the perspective of both scientific and practical-applied components. The problems of the implementation of the legal situation by scientists are identified due to the lack of a well-developed definitive basis, inconsistency of the provisions of federal and departmental legislation regarding certain substantive elements of the legal situation. The hypothesis is put forward that due to the lack of a legally fixed concept of a scientist, uniformity in the interpretation of his status, caused, among other things, by the use of such evaluative terms as “leading”, “outstanding”, etc. in his design, law enforcement defects arise, significantly and at the same time negatively affecting the effectiveness of implemented measures of state support for the scientific sector. Organizational and legal measures to strengthen the legal position of a scientist in the Russian Federation are proposed.</jats:p

Analysis of the experiment on registration of X-rays from the stepped leader of a cloud-to-ground lightning discharge

Using a Monte Carlo technique to simulate the transport of runaway electrons (REs) and X-rays in the atmosphere and through attenuators covering detectors, we have modeled the results of experiments to detect X-rays from triggered lightning and stepped leaders of a natural cloud-to-ground lightning. In the model, bremsstrahlung of high-energy runaway electrons (REs) generated at the leader front is assumed to be the origin of X-rays. Specific fluxes (per one RE) of photons and bremsstrahlung energy at the detectors were calculated. The analysis was executed with monoenergetic and exponential initial energy distributions of REs with different angular distributions. To reproduce the detected radiation energy of ~1–2 MeV, a generation of ~1010–1011REs per flash is required in the case with the beam angular distribution of monoenergetic REs with the energy in the range 1–10 MeV. The same result was obtained with the exponential energy distribution of REs with the average energy 7 MeV, i.e., with the average energy in the RE avalanche. The electric field amplifies the flux of the radiation energy, and the amplification becoming stronger as the RE source approaches the ground. In the case with an isotropic angular distribution of REs in the bottom hemisphere, with no electric field, (4–5) 109 REs are required for reproducing ~1–2 MeV of detected X-ray energy. In addition, fluxes of photons and fluxes of their energy at the detectors, energy distributions of photons and their average energy were calculated

TGF Afterglows: A New Radiation Mechanism From Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms are known to create terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) which are microsecond-long bursts created by runaway of thermal electrons from propagating lightning leaders, as well as gamma ray glows that possibly are created by relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREA) that can last for minutes or more and are sometimes terminated by a discharge. In this work we predict a new intermediate thunderstorm radiation mechanism, which we call TGF afterglow, as it is caused by the capture of photonuclear neutrons produced by a TGF. TGF afterglows are milliseconds to seconds long; this duration is caused by the thermalization time of the intermediate neutrons. TGF afterglows indicate that the primary TGF has produced photons in the energy range of 10-30 MeV; they are nondirectional in contrast to the primary TGF. Gurevich et al. might have reported TGF afterglows in 2011